Methods and compositions for affecting the flavor and aroma profile of consumables

ABSTRACT

This document relates to food products containing highly conjugated heterocyclic rings complexed to an iron ion and one or more flavor precursors, and using such food products to modulate the flavor and/or aroma profile of other foods. The food products described herein can be prepared in various ways and can be formulated to be free of animal products.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/398,479 filed Jan. 4, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/797,006 filed Jul. 10, 2015, which is a continuation of PCT/US2014/011347 which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 13/941,211, filed Jul. 12, 2013, U.S. Application Ser. No. 61/908,634, filed Nov. 25, 2013, and to U.S. Application Ser. No. 61/751,816, filed Jan. 11, 2013, and is related to the following co-pending patent applications: Application Ser. No. PCT/US12/46560; Application Ser. No PCT/US12/46552; Application Ser. No. 61,876,676, filed Sep. 11, 2013; and Application Ser. No. 61/751,818, filed Jan. 11, 2013, all of which are incorporated herein by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to food products and more particularly, to food products that include a highly conjugated heterocyclic ring complexed to iron such as a heme-cofactor and one or more flavor precursor molecules.

BACKGROUND

Food is any substance that is either eaten or drunk by any animal, including humans, for nutrition or pleasure. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and can contain essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells in an effort to produce energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.

Food typically has its origin in a photosynthetic organism, such as a plant. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as food sources are raised by feeding them food which is typically derived from plants.

In most cases, the plant or animal food source is fractionated into a variety of different portions, depending upon the purpose of the food. Often, certain portions of the plant, such as the seeds or fruits, are more highly prized by humans than others and these are selected for human consumption, while other less desirable portions, such as the stalks of grasses, are typically used for feeding animals.

Current plant-based meat substitutes have largely failed to cause a shift to a vegetarian diet. Meat substitute compositions are typically extruded soy/grain mixtures which largely fail to replicate the experience of cooking and eating meat. Common limitations of plant-based meat substitute products are a texture and mouth-feel that are more homogenous than that of equivalent meat products. Furthermore, as these products must largely be sold pre-cooked, with artificial flavors and aromas pre-incorporated, they fail to replicate the aromas, flavors, and other key features, such as texture and mouth-feel, associated with cooking or cooked meat. As a result, these products appeal largely to a limited consumer base that is already committed to vegetarianism/veganism, but have failed to appeal to the larger consumer segment accustomed to eating meat. It would be useful to have improved plant-based meat substitutes which better replicate the aromas and flavors of meat, particularly during and/or after cooking.

SUMMARY

Provided herein are methods and compositions for modulating the flavor and/or aroma profile of consumable food products, including animal- or non-animal (e.g., plant) based food products, or mixtures of animal- and non-animal-based food products. In some embodiments, the methods and compositions are useful for modulating the flavor and/or aroma profile of a consumable food product during and/or after the cooking process. In some embodiments, the methods and compositions are used to generate one or more chemical compounds that modulate the flavor and/or aroma profile of the consumable food product during and/or after the cooking process.

As provided herein, and without being bound by theory, certain characteristic meaty flavors and/or aromas (e.g., beefy, bacony, umami, savory, bloody, brothy, gravy, metallic, bouillon-like; see Tables 2, 7, and 11), including one or more specific chemical compounds associated with the same (see Tables 3, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, or 17), are believed to be produced during the cooking process of a consumable food product by chemical reaction of one or more flavor precursor molecules or compositions catalyzed by the presence of a highly conjugated heterocyclic ring complexed to an iron ion (e.g., a heme moiety; or a porphyrin; a porphyrinogen; a corrin; a corrinoid; a chlorin; a bacteriochorophyll; a corphin; a chlorophyllin; a bacteriochlorin; or an isobacteriochlorin moiety complexed to an iron ion). Such highly conjugated heterocycylic moieties include heterocyclic aromatic rings composed of one or more (2, 3, or 4 more) pyrrole, pyrrole-like, and/or pyrroline subunits. The highly conjugated heterocyclic ring complexed to an iron ion is referred to herein as an iron complex. In some embodiments, the heme moiety can be a heme cofactor such as a heme moiety bound to a protein; a heme moiety bound to a non-proteinaceous polymer; a heme moiety bound to a solid support; or a heme moiety encapsulated in a liposome. In some embodiments, the flavors and/or aromas are not generated in the absence of the iron complex (e.g., in the absence of a ferrous chlorin) or are not generated in the absence of a heme-cofactor (e.g., in the absence of a heme-containing protein). Accordingly, as described herein, the iron complexes such as isolated chlorin-iron complexes or heme-cofactors (e.g., heme-containing proteins) can be used to generate meaty flavors and/or aromas in a variety of food products, such as during the cooking process.

Combining one or more iron complexes such as a heme-cofactor (e.g., a heme-containing protein, including, for example a plant-derived heme protein such as a plant leghemoglobin (legH)), with one or more flavor precursor molecules or compositions (see, e.g., Table 1 or Table 13) can generate or provide a range of savory and meaty aromas and tastes (see, e.g., Tables 2, 7, and/or 11) in a cooked consumable food product. Flavor precursor molecules or compositions can be added to the uncooked food product in purified form and/or can be derived from ingredients in the uncooked consumable food product that contain and/or are enriched with one or more of the particular flavor precursors or compositions, including, for example, yeast extract, vegetable oil, corn oil, soybean oil, palm fruit oil, palm kernel oil, safflower oil, flaxseed oil, rice bran oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, canola oil, sunflower oil, coconut oil, mango oil, or an algal oil. The resultant flavor and/or aroma profile can be modulated by the type and concentration of the flavor precursors, the pH of the reaction, the length of cooking, the type and amount of iron complex (e.g., a heme cofactor such as a heme-containing protein), the temperature of the reaction, and the amount of water activity in the product, among other factors.

One or more flavor precursor molecules or compositions can be added along with a iron complex (e.g., ferrous chlorophyllin or a heme cofactor such as a heme-containing protein), to an uncooked food product, before and/or during the cooking process, to give the cooked consumable food product a particular meaty taste and smell, for example, the taste and smell of beef, bacon, pork, lamb, or chicken. Consumable food products can be animal or non-animal based (e.g., plant) food products, or combinations of an animal and non-animal based food product. For example, a plant based veggie burger or an animal-based burger, such as a chicken burger, can be modified with the compositions and methods of the present disclosure to result in a burger having a cooked flavor and/or aroma profile that is more meat like, e.g., beef-like, lamb-like, pork-like, turkey-like, duck-like, deer-like, yak-like, bison-like or other desirable meat flavor.

Food products for use in the present disclosure include those that have an iron-complex (e.g., a heme cofactor such as a heme-containing protein), and one or more flavor precursor molecules included therein. The iron-complex such as a heme cofactor (e.g., a heme-containing protein) and the one or more flavor precursor molecules can be homogenously or heterogeneously included in the food products. A heme protein can be isolated and purified prior to inclusion in the food product. Non-limiting examples of consumable food products which can include an iron complex such as a heme-cofactor (e.g., a heme-containing protein) and one or more flavor precursor molecules include animal-based or non-animal (e.g., plant-based), or combinations of animal-based and non-animal-based, food products in the form of hot dogs, burgers, ground meat, sausages, steaks, filets, roasts, breasts, thighs, wings, meatballs, meatloaf, bacon, strips, fingers, nuggets, cutlets, or cubes.

Consumable food products for use in the present disclosure can be flavor additive compositions, e.g., for addition to another consumable food product before, during, or after its cooking process. A flavor additive composition can include an iron complex such as a heme-cofactor (e.g., a heme-containing protein), and one or more flavor precursors.

A flavor additive composition can include a heme protein, e.g., an isolated and purified heme protein; such a flavor additive composition can be used to modulate the flavor and/or aroma profile of a consumable food product that comprises one or more flavor precursor molecules or compositions. A flavor additive composition can include one or more flavor precursor molecules or compositions; such a flavor additive composition can be used to modulate the flavor and/or aroma profile of a consumable food product that comprises the heme protein, e.g., an isolated and purified heme protein.

A flavor additive composition can be in the form, of but not limited to, soup or stew bases, bouillon, e.g., powder or cubes, flavor packets, or seasoning packets or shakers. Such flavor additive compositions can be used to modulate the flavor and/or aroma profile for a variety of consumable food products, and can be added to a consumable food product before, during, or after cooking of the consumable food product.

In some embodiments, a flavor additive composition such as one including an iron complex (e.g., ferrous chlorin or a heme protein) and one or more flavor precursors can be reacted (e.g., in vitro) with heating to generate a particular flavor and/or aroma profile of interest and the resultant product mixture can be added to the consumable food product of interest, which can then be eaten as-is or can be additionally modified, e.g., by additional cooking. In some embodiments, the iron complex can be removed from the resultant product mixture before adding the product mixture to the consumable food product of interest. For example, the iron complex can be removed from the product mixture using chromatographic techniques such as column chromatography, e.g., a column containing heme or iron-chlorin.

In some embodiments, the iron complex such as a heme-cofactor, e.g., a heme-protein, and the one or more flavor precursor flavor additive compositions can be soy-free, wheat-free, yeast-free, MSG-free, and free of protein hydrolysis products, and can taste meaty, highly savory, and without off odors or flavors.

In one aspect, this document features a food product that includes an iron complex such as a heme moiety, or a porphyrin, a porphyrinogen, a corrin, a corrinoid, a chlorin, a bacteriochorophyll, a corphin, a chlorophyllin, a bacteriochlorin, or an isobacteriochlorin moiety complexed to an iron ion and one or more flavor precursor molecules selected from the group consisting of glucose, fructose, ribose, arabinose, glucose-6-phosphate, fructose 6-phosphate, fructose 1,6-diphosphate, inositol, maltose, sucrose, maltodextrin, glycogen, nucleotide-bound sugars, molasses, a phospholipid, a lecithin, inosine, inosine monophosphate (IMP), guanosine monophosphate (GMP), pyrazine, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), lactic acid, succinic acid, glycolic acid, thiamine, creatine, pyrophosphate, vegetable oil, algal oil, corn oil, soybean oil, palm fruit oil, palm kernel oil, safflower oil, flaxseed oil, rice bran oil, cottonseed oil, sunflower oil, canola oil, olive oil, a free fatty acid, cysteine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine, glutathione, an amino acid derivative, a protein hydrolysate, a malt extract, a yeast extract, and a peptone. The heme moiety can be a heme-containing protein, a heme moiety bound to a non-peptidic polymer; or a heme moiety bound to a solid support. The heme-containing protein can be a plant, mammalian, a yeast or filamentous fungi, or bacterial heme-containing protein. The food product can include two to one hundred, two to fifty flavor precursors, two to forty flavor precursors, two to thirty-five flavor precursors, two to ten flavor precursors, or two to six flavor precursors. In some embodiments, the one or more flavor precursor molecules are selected from the group consisting of glucose, ribose, cysteine, a cysteine derivative, thiamine, alanine, methionine, lysine, a lysine derivative, glutamic acid, a glutamic acid derivative, IMP, GMP, lactic acid, maltodextrin, creatine, alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, valine, linoleic acid, and mixtures thereof. The heme-containing protein can be a non-symbiotic hemoglobin or a leghemoglobin (e.g., a plant leghemoglobin such as one from soybean, alfalfa, lupin, pea, cow pea, or lupin). The heme-containing protein can include an amino acid sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to a polypeptide set forth in SEQ ID NOs:1-26. The heme-containing protein can be isolated and purified. The food product further can include a food-grade oil, a seasoning agent, a flavoring agent, a protein, a protein concentrate, an emulsifier, a gelling agent, or a fiber. The food product can be a meat substitute, a soup base, stew base, snack food, bouillon powder, bouillon cube, a flavor packet, or a frozen food product. Any of the food products can be free of animal products. The food product can be sealed within a packet or shaker.

This document also features a method for producing a flavor compound. The method can include combining an iron complex (e.g., a heme moiety, a porphyrin, a porphyrinogen, a corrin, a corrinoid, a chlorin, a bacteriochorophyll, a corphin, a chlorophyllin, a bacteriochlorin, or an isobacteriochlorin complexed to an iron) and one or more flavor precursor molecules to form a mixture, the one or more flavor precursor molecules selected from the group consisting of glucose, fructose, arabinose, ribose glucose-6-phosphate, fructose 6-phosphate, fructose 1,6-diphosphate, inositol, maltose, sucrose, maltodextrin, glycogen, nucleotide-bound sugars, molasses, a phospholipid, a lecithin, inosine, inosine monophosphate (IMP), guanosine monophosphate (GMP), pyrazine, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), lactic acid, succinic acid, glycolic acid, thiamine, creatine, pyrophosphate, vegetable oil, algal oil, corn oil, soybean oil, palm fruit oil, palm kernel oil, safflower oil, flaxseed oil, rice bran oil, cottonseed oil, canola oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, flaxseed oil, coconut oil, mango oil, a free fatty acid, cysteine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine, glutathione, an amino acid derivative, a protein hydrolysate, a malt extract, a yeast extract, and a peptone; and heating the mixture to form one or more flavor compounds selected from the group consisting of phenylacetaldehyde, 1-octen-3-one, 2-n-heptylfuran, 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, butyrolactone, 2-undecenal, pyrazine, methyl-, furfural, 2-decanone, pyrrole, 1-octen-3-ol, 2-acetylthiazole, (E)-2-octenal, decanal, benzaldehyde, (E)-2-nonenal, pyrazine, 1-hexanol, 1-heptanol, dimethyl trisulfide, 2-nonanone, 2-pentanone, 2-heptanone, 2,3-butanedione, heptanal, nonanal, 2-octanone, 1-octanol, 3-ethylcyclopentanone, 3-octen-2-one, (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal, (Z)-2-heptenal, 2-heptanone, 6-methyl-, (Z)-4-heptenal, (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal, 3-methyl-2-butenal, 2-pentyl-furan, thiazole, (E, E)-2,4-decadienal, hexanoic acid, 1-ethyl-5-methylcyclopentene, (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, (Z)-2-decenal, dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone, trans-3-nonen-2-one, (E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one, (Z)-2-octen-1-ol, 5-ethyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone, 2-butenal, 1-penten-3-ol, (E)-2-hexenal, formic acid, heptyl ester, 2-pentyl-thiophene, (Z)-2-nonenal, 2-hexyl-thiophene, (E)-2-decenal, 2-ethyl-5-methyl-pyrazine, 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, thiophene, 2-methyl-furan, pyridine, butanal, 2-ethyl-furan, 3-methyl-butanal, trichloromethane, 2-methyl-butanal, methacrolein, 2-methyl-propanal, propanal, acetaldehyde, 2-propyl-furan, dihydro-5-propyl-2(3H)-furanone, 1,3-hexadiene, 4-decyne, pentanal, 1-propanol, heptanoic acid, trimethyl-ethanethiol, 1-butanol, 1-penten-3-one, dimethyl sulfide, 2-ethyl furan, 2-pentyl-thiophene, 2-propenal, 2-tridecen-1-ol, 4-octene, 2-methyl thiazole, methyl-pyrazine, 2-butanone, 2-pentyl-furan, 2-methyl-propanal, butyrolactone, 3-methyl-butanal, methyl-thiirane, 2-hexyl-furan, butanal, 2-methyl-butanal, 2-methyl-furan, furan, octanal, 2-heptenal, 1-octene, formic acid heptyl ester, 3-pentyl-furan, and 4-penten-2-one. The heme moiety can be a heme-containing protein, a heme moiety bound to a non-peptidic polymer; or a heme moiety bound to a solid support. The method can include combining cysteine, ribose, lactic acid, lysine, and/or thiamine with the heme-containing protein.

In another aspect, this document features a method for producing a flavor compound. The method includes combining an iron complex, such as a heme-containing protein, and one or more flavor precursor molecules to form a mixture, the one or more flavor precursor molecules selected from the group consisting of glucose, fructose, ribose, arabinose, glucose-6-phosphate, fructose 6-phosphate, fructose 1,6-diphosphate, inositol, maltose, sucrose, maltodextrin, glycogen, nucleotide-bound sugars, molasses, a phospholipid, a lecithin, inosine, IMP, GMP, pyrazine, AMP, lactic acid, succinic acid, glycolic acid, thiamine, creatine, pyrophosphate, vegetable oil, algal oil, corn oil, soybean oil, palm fruit oil, palm kernel oil, safflower oil, flaxseed oil, rice bran oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, canola oil, flaxseed oil, coconut oil, mango oil, a free fatty acid, methionine, cysteine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine, glutathione, an amino acid derivative, a protein hydrolysate, a malt extract, a yeast extract, and a peptone; and heating the mixture to form one or more flavor compounds set forth in Tables 3, 8, or 9. For example, the flavor precursors can include cysteine, a sugar, and one or more other precursors.

This document also features a method for imparting a meat like flavor (e.g., beef-like, chicken like, pork-like, lamb-like, turkey-like, duck-like, deer-like, or bison-like) to a food product. The method includes contacting the food product with a flavoring composition, the flavoring composition comprising i) an iron complex, such as a heme moiety (e.g., a heme-containing protein); and ii) one or more flavor precursor molecules selected from the group consisting of glucose, fructose, ribose, arabinose, glucose-6-phosphate, fructose 6-phosphate, fructose 1,6-diphosphate, inositol, maltose, sucrose, maltodextrin, glycogen, nucleotide-bound sugars, molasses, a phospholipid, a lecithin, inosine, IMP, GMP, pyrazine, AMP, lactic acid, succinic acid, glycolic acid, thiamine, creatine, pyrophosphate, vegetable oil, algal oil, corn oil, soybean oil, palm fruit oil, palm kernel oil, safflower oil, flaxseed oil, rice bran oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, canola oil, flaxseed oil, coconut oil, mango oil, a free fatty acid, cysteine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine, glutathione, an amino acid derivative, a protein hydrolysate, a malt extract, a yeast extract, and a peptone; wherein after heating the food product and the flavoring composition together, a meat like flavor (e.g., beef-like, chicken like, pork-like, lamb-like, turkey-like, duck-like, deer-like, or bison-like) is imparted to the food product. In some embodiments, the iron complex is removed from the food product. The flavoring composition further can include a seasoning agent, a flavoring agent, a protein, a protein concentrate, or an emulsifier. The flavoring composition can be sealed within a packet or shaker.

In another aspect, this document features a method of making a food product. The method includes combining an isolated heme-containing protein and one or more flavor precursor molecules to form a mixture, the one or more flavor precursor molecules selected from the group consisting of glucose, fructose, ribose, arabinose, glucose-6-phosphate, fructose 6-phosphate, fructose 1,6-diphosphate, inositol, maltose, sucrose, maltodextrin, glycogen, nucleotide-bound sugars, molasses, a phospholipid, a lecithin, inosine, IMP, GMP, pyrazine, AMP, lactic acid, succinic acid, glycolic acid, thiamine, creatine, pyrophosphate, sunflower oil, coconut oil, canola oil, flaxseed oil, mango oil, a free fatty acid, cysteine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine, glutathione, an amino acid derivative, a protein hydrolysate, a malt extract, a yeast extract, and a peptone; and heating the mixture.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used to practice the invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. The word “comprising” in the claims may be replaced by “consisting essentially of” or with “consisting of,” according to standard practice in patent law.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 contains amino acid sequences of exemplary heme-containing proteins.

FIG. 2 is a bar graph of the beefiness rating of the meat replica with or without the Magic Mix, both samples in triplicate with 1% w/v LegH protein. Tasters rated beefiness on a scale from 1-7, with 1 being not beefy at all and 7 being exactly like ground beef.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This document is based on methods and materials for modulating the taste and/or aroma profile of food products. As described herein, compositions containing one or more flavor precursors and one or more highly conjugated heterocyclic rings complexed to an iron (referred to herein as an iron complex) can be used to modulate the taste and/or aroma profile of food products. Such iron complexes include heme moieties or other highly conjugated heterocylic rings complexed to an iron ion (referred to as an iron complex). “Heme” refers to a prosthetic group bound to iron (Fe′ or Fe′) in the center of a porphyrin ring. Thus, an iron complex can be a heme moiety, or a porphyrin, porphyrinogen, corrin, corrinoid, chlorin, bacteriochorophyll, corphin, chlorophyllin, bacteriochlorin, or isobacteriochlorin moiety complexed to iron ion. The heme moiety that can be used to modulate the taste and/or aroma profile of food products can be a heme cofactor such as a heme-containing protein; a heme moiety bound to a non-peptidic polymer or other macromolecule such as a liposome, a polyethylene glycol, a carbohydrate, a polysaccharide, a cyclodextrin, a polyethylenimine, a polyacrylate, or derivatives thereof; a siderophore (i.e., an iron chelating compound); or a heme moiety bound to a solid support (e.g., beads) composed of a chromatography resin, cellulose, graphite, charcoal, or diatomaceous earth.

In some embodiments, the iron complexes catalyze some reactions and produce flavor precursors without heating or cooking. In some embodiments, the iron complex destabilizes upon heating or cooking and releases the iron, e.g., the protein is denatured, so flavor precursors can be generated.

Suitable flavor precursors include sugars, sugar alcohols, sugar derivatives, oils (e.g., vegetable oils), free fatty acids, alpha-hydroxy acids, dicarboxylic acids, amino acids and derivatives thereof, nucleosides, nucleotides, vitamins, peptides, protein hydrolysates, extracts, phospholipids, lecithin, and organic molecules. Non-limiting examples of such flavor precursors are provided in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Flavor Precursor Molecules Sugars, sugar alcohols, sugar acids, and sugar derivatives: glucose, fructose, ribose, sucrose, arabinose, glucose-6-phosphate, fructose-6-phosphate, fructose 1,6-diphosphate, inositol, maltose, molasses, maltodextrin, glycogen, galactose, lactose, ribitol, gluconic acid and glucuronic acid, amylose, amylopectin, or xylose Oils: coconut oil, mango oil, sunflower oil, cottonseed oil, safflower oil, rice bran oil, cocoa butter, palm fruit oil, palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil, corn oil, sesame oil, walnut oil, flaxseed, jojoba oil, castor, grapeseed oil, peanut oil, olive oil, algal oil, oil from bacteria or fungi Free fatty acids: caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, palmititic acid, palmitoleic acid, stearic, oleic acid, linoleic acid, alpha linolenic acid, gamma linolenic acid, arachidic acid, arachidonic acid, behenic acid, or erucic acid Amino acids and derivatives thereof: cysteine, cystine, a cysteine sulfoxide, allicin, selenocysteine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, 5-hydroxytryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, or tyrosine Nucleosides and Nucleotides: inosine, inosine monophosphate (IMP), guanosine, guanoside monophosphate (GMP), adenosine, adenosine monophosophate (AMP) Vitamins: thiamine, vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin B6, or Vitamin E Misc: phospholipid, lecithin, pyrazine, creatine, pyrophosphate Acids: acetic acid, alpha hydroxy acids such as lactic acid or glycolic acid, tricarboxylic acids such as citric acid, dicarboxylic acids such as succinic acid or tartaric acid Peptides and protein hydrolysates: glutathione, vegetable protein hydrolysates, soy protein hydrolysates, yeast protein hydrolysates, algal protein hydrolysatess, meat protein hydrolysates Extracts: a malt extract, a yeast extract, and a peptone

In some embodiments, one flavor precursor or combinations of two to one hundred flavor precursors, two to ninety, two to eighty, two to seventy, two to sixty, or two to fifty flavor precursors are used. For example, combinations of two to forty flavor precursors, two to thirty-five flavor precursors, two to ten flavor precursors, or two to six flavor precursors can be used with the one or more iron complexes (e.g., heme co-factors such as a heme-containing proteins). For example, the one or more flavor precursors can be glucose, ribose, cysteine, a cysteine derivative, thiamine, lysine, a lysine derivative, glutamic acid, a glutamic acid derivative, alanine, methionine, IMP, GMP, lactic acid, and mixtures thereof (e.g., glucose and cysteine; cysteine and ribose; cysteine, glucose or ribose, and thiamine; cysteine, glucose or ribose, IMP, and GMP; cysteine, glucose or ribose, and lactic acid). For example, the one or more flavor precursors can be alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, valine, glucose, ribose, maltodextrin, thiamine, IMP, GMP, lactic acid, and creatine.

As used herein, the term “heme containing protein” can be used interchangeably with “heme containing polypeptide” or “heme protein” or “heme polypeptide” and includes any polypeptide that can covalently or noncovalently bind a heme moiety. In some embodiments, the heme-containing polypeptide is a globin and can include a globin fold, which comprises a series of seven to nine alpha helices. Globin type proteins can be of any class (e.g., class I, class II, or class III), and in some embodiments, can transport or store oxygen. For example, a heme-containing protein can be a non-symbiotic type of hemoglobin or a leghemoglobin. A heme-containing polypeptide can be a monomer, i.e., a single polypeptide chain, or can be a dimer, a trimer, tetramer, and/or higher order oligomers. The life-time of the oxygenated Fe2⁺ state of a heme-containing protein can be similar to that of myoglobin or can exceed it by 10%, 20%, 30% 50%, 100% or more under conditions in which the heme-protein-containing consumable is manufactured, stored, handled or prepared for consumption. The life-time of the unoxygenated Fe²⁺ state of a heme-containing protein can be similar to that of myoglobin or can exceed it by 10%, 20%, 30% 50%, 100% or more under conditions in which the heme-protein-containing consumable is manufactured, stored, handled or prepared for consumption

Non-limiting examples of heme-containing polypeptides can include an androglobin, a cytoglobin, a globin E, a globin X, a globin Y, a hemoglobin, a myoglobin, an erythrocruorin, a beta hemoglobin, an alpha hemoglobin, a protoglobin, a cyanoglobin, a cytoglobin, a histoglobin, a neuroglobins, a chlorocruorin, a truncated hemoglobin (e.g., HbN or HbO), a truncated 2/2 globin, a hemoglobin 3 (e.g., Glb3), a cytochrome, or a peroxidase.

Heme-containing proteins that can be used in the compositions and food products described herein can be from mammals (e.g., farms animals such as cows, goats, sheep, pigs, ox, or rabbits), birds, plants, algae, fungi (e.g., yeast or filamentous fungi), ciliates, or bacteria. For example, a heme-containing protein can be from a mammal such as a farm animal (e.g., a cow, goat, sheep, pig, ox, or rabbit) or a bird such as a turkey or chicken. Heme-containing proteins can be from a plant such as Nicotiana tabacum or Nicotiana sylvestris (tobacco); Zea mays(corn), Arabidopsis thaliana, a legume such as Glycine max (soybean), Cicer arietinum(garbanzo or chick pea), Pisum sativum (pea) varieties such as garden peas or sugar snap peas, Phaseolus vulgaris varieties of common beans such as green beans, black beans, navy beans, northern beans, or pinto beans, Vigna unguiculata varieties (cow peas), Vigna radiata (Mung beans), Lupinus albus (lupin), or Medicago sativa (alfalfa); Brassica napus (canola); Triticum sps. (wheat, including wheat berries, and spelt); Gossypium hirsutum (cotton); Oryza sativa(rice); Zizania sps. (wild rice); Helianthus annuus (sunflower); Beta vulgaris (sugarbeet); Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet); Chenopodium sp. (quinoa); Sesamum sp. (sesame); Linum usitatissimum (flax); or Hordeum vulgare (barley). Heme-containing proteins can be isolated from fungi such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris, Magnaporthe oryzae, Fusarium graminearum, Aspergillus oryzae, Trichoderma reesei, Myceliopthera thermophile, Kluyvera lactis, or Fusarium oxysporum. Heme-containing proteins can be isolated from bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus megaterium, Synechocistis sp., Aquifex aeolicus, Methylacidiphilum infernorum, or thermophilic bacteria such as Thermophilus. The sequences and structure of numerous heme-containing proteins are known. See for example, Reedy, et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 2008, Vol. 36, Database issue D307-D313 and the Heme Protein Database available on the world wide web at hemeprotein.info/heme.php.

For example, a non-symbiotic hemoglobin can be from a plant selected from the group consisting of soybean, sprouted soybean, alfalfa, golden flax, black bean, black eyed pea, northern, garbanzo, moong bean, cowpeas, pinto beans, pod peas, quinoa, sesame, sunflower, wheat berries, spelt, barley, wild rice, or rice.

Any of the heme-containing proteins described herein that can be used for producing food products can have at least 70% (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of the corresponding wild-type heme-containing protein or fragments thereof that contain a heme-binding motif. For example, a heme-containing protein can have at least 70% sequence identity to an amino acid sequence set forth in FIG. 1, including a non-symbiotic hemoglobin such as that from Vigna radiata (SEQ ID NO:1), Hordeum vulgare (SEQ ID NO:5), Zea mays (SEQ ID NO:13), Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (rice) (SEQ ID NO:14), or Arabidopsis thaliana (SEQ ID NO:15), a Hell's gate globin I such as that from Methylacidiphilum infernorum (SEQ ID NO:2), a flavohemoprotein such as that from Aquifex aeolicus (SEQ ID NO:3), a leghemoglobin such as that from Glycine max (SEQ ID NO:4), Pisum sativum (SEQ ID NO:16), or Vigna unguiculata (SEQ ID NO:17), a heme-dependent peroxidase such as from Magnaporthe oryzae, (SEQ ID NO:6) or Fusarium oxysporum (SEQ ID NO:7), a cytochrome c peroxidase from Fusarium graminearum (SEQ ID NO:8), a truncated hemoglobin from Chlamydomonas moewusii (SEQ ID NO:9), Tetrahymena pyriformis (SEQ ID NO:10, group I truncated), Paramecium caudatum (SEQ ID NO:11, group I truncated), a hemoglobin from Aspergillus niger (SEQ ID NO:12), or a mammalian myoglobin protein such as the Bos taurus (SEQ ID NO:18) myoglobin, Sus scrofa (SEQ ID NO:19) myoglobin, Equus caballus (SEQ ID NO:20) myoglobin, a heme-protein from Nicotiana benthamiana (SEQ ID NO:21), Bacillus subtilis (SEQ ID NO:22), Corynebacterium glutamicum (SEQ ID NO:23), Synechocystis PCC6803 (SEQ ID NO:24), Synechococcus sp. PCC 7335 (SEQ ID NO:25), or Nostoc commune (SEQ ID NO:26).

The percent identity between two amino acid sequences can be determined as follows. First, the amino acid sequences are aligned using the BLAST 2 Sequences (Bl2seq) program from the stand-alone version of BLASTZ containing BLASTP version 2.0.14. This stand-alone version of BLASTZ can be obtained from Fish & Richardson's web site (e.g., www.fr.com/blast/) or the U.S. government's National Center for Biotechnology Information web site (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). Instructions explaining how to use the Bl2seq program can be found in the readme file accompanying BLASTZ. Bl2seq performs a comparison between two amino acid sequences using the BLASTP algorithm. To compare two amino acid sequences, the options of Bl2seq are set as follows: -i is set to a file containing the first amino acid sequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq1.txt); -j is set to a file containing the second amino acid sequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq2.txt); -p is set to blastp; -o is set to any desired file name (e.g., C:\output.txt); and all other options are left at their default setting. For example, the following command can be used to generate an output file containing a comparison between two amino acid sequences: C:\Bl2seq -i c:\seq1.txt -j c:\seq2.txt -p blastp -o c:\output.txt. If the two compared sequences share homology, then the designated output file will present those regions of homology as aligned sequences. If the two compared sequences do not share homology, then the designated output file will not present aligned sequences. Similar procedures can be following for nucleic acid sequences except that blastn is used.

Once aligned, the number of matches is determined by counting the number of positions where an identical amino acid residue is presented in both sequences. The percent identity is determined by dividing the number of matches by the length of the full-length polypeptide amino acid sequence followed by multiplying the resulting value by 100. It is noted that the percent identity value is rounded to the nearest tenth. For example, 78.11, 78.12, 78.13, and 78.14 is rounded down to 78.1, while 78.15, 78.16, 78.17, 78.18, and 78.19 is rounded up to 78.2. It also is noted that the length value will always be an integer.

It will be appreciated that a number of nucleic acids can encode a polypeptide having a particular amino acid sequence. The degeneracy of the genetic code is well known to the art; i.e., for many amino acids, there is more than one nucleotide triplet that serves as the codon for the amino acid. For example, codons in the coding sequence for a given enzyme can be modified such that optimal expression in a particular species (e.g., bacteria or fungus) is obtained, using appropriate codon bias tables for that species.

Heme-containing proteins can be extracted from the source material (e.g., extracted from animal tissue, or plant, fungal, algal, or bacterial biomass, or from the culture supernatant for secreted proteins) or from a combination of source materials (e.g., multiple plant species). Leghemoglobin is readily available as an unused by-product of commodity legume crops (e.g., soybean, alfalfa, or pea). The amount of leghemoglobin in the roots of these crops in the United States exceeds the myoglobin content of all the red meat consumed in the United States.

In some embodiments, extracts of heme-containing proteins include one or more non-heme-containing proteins from the source material (e.g., other animal, plant, fungal, algal, or bacterial proteins) or from a combination of source materials (e.g., different animal, plant, fungi, algae, or bacteria).

In some embodiments, heme-containing proteins are isolated and purified from other components of the source material (e.g., other animal, plant, fungal, algal, or bacterial proteins). As used herein, the term “isolated and purified” indicates that the preparation of heme-containing protein is at least 60% pure, e.g., greater than 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% pure. Without being bound by theory, isolating and purifying proteins can allow the food products to be made with greater consistency and greater control over the properties of the food product as unwanted material is eliminated. Proteins can be separated on the basis of their molecular weight, for example, by size exclusion chromatography, ultrafiltration through membranes, or density centrifugation. In some embodiments, the proteins can be separated based on their surface charge, for example, by isoelectric precipitation, anion exchange chromatography, or cation exchange chromatography. Proteins also can be separated on the basis of their solubility, for example, by ammonium sulfate precipitation, isoelectric precipitation, surfactants, detergents or solvent extraction. Proteins also can be separated by their affinity to another molecule, using, for example, hydrophobic interaction chromatography, reactive dyes, or hydroxyapatite. Affinity chromatography also can include using antibodies having specific binding affinity for the heme-containing protein, nickel NTA for His-tagged recombinant proteins, lectins to bind to sugar moieties on a glycoprotein, or other molecules which specifically binds the protein.

Heme-containing proteins also can be recombinantly produced using polypeptide expression techniques (e.g., heterologous expression techniques using bacterial cells, insect cells, fungal cells such as yeast, plant cells such as tobacco, soybean, or Arabidopsis, or mammalian cells). In some cases, standard polypeptide synthesis techniques (e.g., liquid-phase polypeptide synthesis techniques or solid-phase polypeptide synthesis techniques) can be used to produce heme-containing proteins synthetically. In some cases, in vitro transcription-translation techniques can be used to produce heme-containing proteins.

The protein used in the consumable may be soluble in a solution. In some embodiments, the isolated and purified proteins are soluble in solution at greater than 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200, or 250 g/L.

In some embodiments, the isolated and purified protein is substantially in its native fold and water soluble. In some embodiments, the isolated and purified protein is more than 50, 60, 70, 80, or 90% in its native fold. In some embodiments, the isolated and purified protein is more than 50, 60, 70, 80, or 90% water soluble.

In some embodiments, the food product contains between 0.01% and 5% by weight of a heme protein. In some embodiments, the food product contains between 0.01% and 5% by weight of leghemoglobin. Some meat also contains myoglobin, a heme protein, which accounts for most of the red color and iron content of some meat. It is understood that these percentages can vary in meat and the food products can be produced to approximate the natural variation in meat.

In some embodiments, the food product comprises about 0.05%, about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.3%, about 0.4%, about 0.5%, about 0.6%, about 0.7%, about 0.8%, about 0.9%, about 1%, about 1.1%, about 1.2%, about 1.3%, about 1.4%, about 1.5%, about 1.6%, about 1.7%, about 1.8%, about 1.9%, about 2%, or more than about 2% of an iron-carrying protein (e.g., a heme-containing protein) by dry weight or total weight. In some cases, the iron carrying protein has been isolated and purified from a source.

Modulating Flavor and/or Aroma Profiles

As described herein, different combinations of flavor precursors can be used with one or more iron complexes (e.g., a ferrous chlorin, a chlorin-iron complex, or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein or heme bound to a non-peptidic polymer such as polyethylene glycol or to a solid support) to produce different flavor and aroma profiles when the flavor precursors and iron complexes are heated together (e.g., during cooking). The resultant flavor and/or aroma profile can be modulated by the type and concentration of the flavor precursors, the pH of the reaction, the length of cooking, the type and amount of iron complex (e.g., a heme-cofactor such as heme-containing protein, heme bound to non-peptidic polymer or macromolecule, or heme bound to a solid support), the temperature of the reaction, and the amount of water activity in the product, among other factors. In embodiments in which a heme moiety is bound to a solid support such as cellulose or a chromatography resin, graphite, charcoal, or diatomaceous earth, the solid support (e.g., beads) can be incubated with sugars and/or one or more other flavor precursors to generate flavors, and then the solid support with attached heme moiety can be re-used, i.e., incubated again with sugars and/or one or more other flavor precursors to generate flavors.

Table 2 provides non-limiting examples of flavor types that can be generated by combining one or more flavor precursors and one or more heme co-factors (e.g., heme-containing proteins). See also Tables 7 and/or 11.

TABLE 2 Flavor Types beef beef broth beef dripping cheesy cold-cut deli meat squash bacon sharp meaty fruity brothy floral ramen musty egg fried food malty caramel bready barbeque sulfur chocolate fried chicken sweet browned potato pretzel french toast grassy breadcrust bloody mushroom broccoli chicken brothy cumin buttery umami metallic raisin yeasty goaty vegetable broth

Flavor and aroma profiles are created by different chemical compounds formed by chemical reactions between the heme co-factor (e.g., heme-containing protein) and flavor precursors. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) can be used to separate and identify the different chemical compounds within a test sample. For example, volatile chemicals can be isolated from the head space after heating a heme-containing protein and one or more flavor precursors.

Table 3 provides non-limiting examples of compounds that can be produced. See also Tables 8, 9, 12, and/or 14.

TABLE 3 Compounds Produced phenylacetaldehyde 2-butenal,2-ethyl- 1,3-hexadiene 1-octen-3-one acetonitrile 4-decyne 2-n-heptylfuran pentanal 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde (E)-2-Hexenal 1-propanol 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde 4-ethyl-phenol, heptanoic acid 1-octene 3-octanone ethanethiol butyrolactone styrene 2-methyl-1-heptene 2-undecenal furan, 3-pentyl- (E)-4-octene propyl-cyclopropane formic acid, heptyl ester 2-methyl-2-heptene methyl-pyrazine (E)-2-Heptenal pentanoic acid 1-hydroxy-propanone 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one nonanoic acid acetic acid n-caproic acid vinyl ester 1,3-dimethyl-benzene furfural 2-ethyl-2-hexenal 2-decanone 1-hepten-3-ol toluene pyrrole 1-ethyl-1-methyl- 1-butanol cyclopentane 1-octen-3-ol 3-ethyl-2-methyl-1,3- 2,3,3-trimethyl-pentane hexadiene 2-acetylthiazole 2-pentyl-thiophene isopropyl alcohol (E)-2-octenal (Z)-2-nonenal 2,2,4,6,6-pentamethyl- heptane decanal 2-n-octylfuran phenol benzaldehyde 2-hexyl-thiophene 1-penten-3-one (E)-2-Nonenal 4-cyclopentene-1,3-dione dimethyl sulfide pyrazine 1-nonanol thiirane 1-pentanol (E)-2-decenal (E)-2-octen-1-ol trans-2-(2-pentenyl)furan 4-ethyl-benzaldehyde 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptene 1-hexanol 1,7-octadien-3-ol 1,3-bis(1,1- dimethylethyl)-benzene 1-heptanol octanoic acid heptane dimethyl trisulfide 2-ethyl-5-methyl-pyrazine 4,7-dimethyl-undecane 2-nonanone 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethyl- acetophenone pyrazine 2-pentanone 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene tridecane 2-heptanone 2-ethyl-1-hexanol thiophosphoramide, s- methyl ester 2,3-butanedione 4-methyl-octanoic acid 2-methyl-thiazole heptanal m-aminophenylacetylene 3-(1-methylethoxy)- propanenitrile, nonanal benzene 2,4-bis(1,1- dimethylethyl)-phenol 2-octanone thiophene 3-ethyl-2,2-dimethyl- pentane 2-butanone 2-methyl-furan 3-ethyl-pentane octanal pyridine 2,3,4-trimethyl-pentane 1-octanol furan 2,4,6-trimethyl-octane 3-ethylcyclopentanone butanal 2,6-dimethyl-nonane 8-methyl-1-undecene 2-ethyl-furan 2-hexyl-furan 3-octen-2-one carbon disulfide 4-methyl-5- thiazoleethanol 2,4-Heptadienal, (E,E)- Furan, 2-hexyl-:2 4-penten-2-one (Z)-2-heptenal 3-methyl-butanal 4-methylthiazole 6-methyl-2-heptanone 2-methyl-butanal 2-methyl-3-pentanone (Z)-4-heptenal methacrolein 2,3-pentanedione (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal octane (E)-2-tridecen-1-ol 3-methyl-2-butenal ethanol 2- thiophenemethanamine 2-pentyl-furan 2-methyl-propanal (Z)-2-nonenal, thiazole acetone methyl thiolacetate (E,E)-2,4-decadienal propanal methyl ethanoate hexanoic acid methyl-thiirane isothiazole 1-ethyl-5-methylcyclopentene acetaldehyde 3,3-dimethyl-hexane (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal 2-propenal 4-methyl-heptane (Z)-2-decenal 2-propyl-furan 2,4-dimethyl-heptane dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3h)-furanone dihydro-5-propyl-2(3H)- 2,3,4-trimethyl-heptane furanone trans-3-nonen-2-one dihydro-3-(2H)-thiophenone 2-methyl-heptane (E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one 2,2,6-trimethyl-decane 2-methyl-3-furanthiol (Z)-2-octen-1-ol 3,3′-dithiobis[2-methyl- 4-amino-1,2,5- furan oxadiazole-3- carbonitrile 5-ethyldihydro-2(3h)-furanone 1-heptene 1,2-benzisothiazol- 3(2H)-one 2-butenal 1,3-octadiene 2-acetyl-propen-2-ol, 1-penten-3-ol 1-nonene 1-decen-3-one 1-(ethylthio)-2-(methylthio)-buta-1,3- diene

In some embodiments, an iron complex (e.g., a ferrous chlorin or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein) described herein is heated in the presence of ground chicken, to increase specific volatile flavor and odorant components typically elevated in beef. For example, propanal, butanal, 2-ethyl-furan, heptanal, octanal, trans-2-(2-pentenyl)furan, (Z)-2-heptenal, (E)-2-octenal, pyrrole, 2,4-dodecadienal, 1-octanal, (Z)-2-decenal, or 2-undecenal can be increased in the presence of the heme-containing protein, which can impart a more beefy flavor to the chicken.

In some embodiments, an iron complex (e.g., a ferrous chlorin or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein) described herein is heated in the presence of cysteine and glucose or other combinations of flavor precursors to provide a different profile of volatile odorants than when any subset of the three components are used individually. Volatile flavor components that are increased under these conditions include but are not limited to furan, acetone, thiazole, furfural, benzaldehyde, 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-thiophenemethanol and decanol. See, e.g., Tables 8 and 9. Under these conditions, cysteine and glucose alone or in the presence of iron salts such as ferrous glucanate produced a sulfurous, odor, but addition of heme-containing proteins reduced the sulfurous odor and replaced it with flavors including but not limited to chicken broth, burnt mushroom, molasses, and bread.

In some embodiments, an iron complex (e.g., a ferrous chlorin or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein) described herein is heated in the presence of cysteine and ribose to provide a different profile of volatile odorants. Heating in the presence of ribose created some additional compounds as compared to when a heme-containing protein and glucose were heated together. See Tables 8 and 9.

In some embodiments, an iron complex (e.g., a ferrous chlorophillin or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein) described herein can be heated in the presence of thiamine and a sugar to affect the formation of 5-Thiazoleethanol, 4-methyl-furan, 3,3′-dithiobis[2-methyl-furan, and/or 4-Methylthiazole. These compounds are known to be present in meat and have beefy, meaty taste notes.

In some embodiments, an iron complex (e.g., a ferrous chlorin or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein) described herein can be heated in the presence of a nucleotide such as inosine monophosphate and/or guanosine monophosphate to control the formation of flavor compounds such as (E)-4-octene, 2-ethyl-furan, 2-pentanone, 2,3-butanedione, 2-methyl-thiazole, methyl-pyrazine, tridecane, (E)-2-octenal, 2-thiopenecarboxaldehyde, and/or 3-thiopenecarboxaldehyde. These compounds are known to be present in meat and have a beefy, meaty, buttery, and or savory flavor notes.

In some embodiments, an iron complex (e.g., a ferrous chlorin or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein) described herein can be heated in the presence of lysine, a sugar such as ribose, and cysteine to control the formation of flavor compounds such as dimethyl trisulfide, nonanal, 2-pentyl thiophene, 2-nonenal furfural, 1-octanol, 2-nonenal, thiazole, 2-acetylthiazole, phenylacetaldehyde, and/or 2-acetylthiazole. These compounds are known to be present in meat and some have a beefy, meaty, and or savory flavor.

In some embodiments, an iron complex (e.g., a ferrous chlorin or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein) described herein can be heated in the presence of lactic acid, a sugar such as ribose, and cysteine to control the formation of the flavor compounds nonanal, thiazole, 2-acetylthiazole, and/or 8-methyl 1-undecene. These compounds are known to be present in meat and have beefy, savory, browned, bready, and malty notes.

In some embodiments, an iron complex (e.g., a ferrous chlorin or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein) described herein can be heated in the presence of amino acids, sugars such as glucose, ribose, and maltodextrin, lactic acid, thiamine, IMP, GMP, creatine, and salts such as potassium chloride and sodium chloride, to control the formation of flavor compounds such as 1,3-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-benzene, 2-methyl 3-furanthiol, and/or bis(2-methyl-4,5-dihydro-3-furyl) disulfide. These compounds are known to be present in meat and have beefy notes. See also Table 14.

In some embodiments, a particular type of heme-containing protein is chosen to control the formation of flavor compounds. See, for example, the results of Table 9, which shows that the addition of different types of heme-proteins (LegH, Barley, B. myoglobin, or A. aeolicus) in flavor reaction mixtures containing one or more flavor precursor compounds results in many of the same key meat flavors, including but not limited to pentanone, 3-methyl butanal, 2-methyl butanal, 2-heptenal, 1-octene, nonanal, 2-propenal, 2-decenal, 2-nonanone, 2-octanone, 2-tridecen-1-ol, 2-octanone, 2-octenal, 4-methyl-2-heptanone, octanal, 2-undecenal, butyrolactone, 1-octen-3-one, 3-methylheptyl acetate, and 2-pentyl-thiophene. These differences in flavor compounds can change the overall taste profile.

In some embodiments, an iron complex (e.g., a ferrous chlorin or a heme-cofactor such as a heme-containing protein) described herein and one or more flavor precursors can be reacted (e.g., in vitro) with heating to generate a particular flavor and/or aroma profile of interest and the resultant flavor additive composition can be added to the consumable food product of interest, which can then be eaten as-is or can be additionally modified, e.g., by additional cooking.

In some embodiments, any undesirable flavors can be minimized by deodorizing with activated charcoal or by removing enzymes such as lipoxygenases (LOX), which can be present in trace amounts when using preparations of plant proteins, and which can convert unsaturated triacylglycerides (such as linoleic acid or linolenic acid) into smaller and more volatile molecules. LOX are naturally present in legumes such as peas, soybeans, and peanuts, as well as rice, potatoes, and olives. When legume flours are fractionated into separate protein fractions, LOX can act as undesirable “time-bombs” that can cause undesirable flavors on aging or storage. Compositions containing plant proteins (e.g., from ground plant seeds) can be subjected to purification to remove LOX using, for example, an affinity resin that binds to LOX and removes it from the protein sample. The affinity resin can be linoleic acid, linolenic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, propyl gallate, or epigalloccatechin gallate attached to a solid support such as a bead or resin. See, e.g., WO2013138793. In addition, depending on the protein component of the food product, certain combinations of antioxidants and/or LOX inhibitors can be used as effective agents to minimize off-flavor or off-odor generation especially in the presence of fats and oils. Such compounds can include, for example, one or more of β-carotene, α-tocopherol, caffeic acid, propyl gallate, or epigallocatechin gallate.

In some embodiments, specific flavor compounds, such as those described in Tables 3, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, or 17 can be isolated and purified from the flavor additive composition. These isolated and purified compounds can be used as an ingredient to create flavors useful to the food and fragrance industry.

A flavor additive composition can be in the form, of but not limited to, soup or stew bases, bouillon, e.g., powder or cubes, flavor packets, or seasoning packets or shakers. Such flavor additive compositions can be used to modulate the flavor and/or aroma profile for a variety of food products, and can be added to a consumable food product before, during, or after cooking of the food product.

Food Products

Food products containing one or more flavor precursors and one or more heme-containing proteins can be used as a base for formulating a variety of additional food products, including meat substitutes, soup bases, stew bases, snack foods, bouillon powders, bouillon cubes, flavor packets, or frozen food products. Meat substitutes can be formulated, for example, as hot dogs, burgers, ground meat, sausages, steaks, filets, roasts, breasts, thighs, wings, meatballs, meatloaf, bacon, strips, fingers, nuggets, cutlets, or cubes.

In addition, food products described herein can be used to modulate the taste and/or aroma profile of other food products (e.g., meat replicas, meat substitutes, tofu, mock duck or other gluten based vegetable product, textured vegetable protein such as textured soy protein, pork, fish, lamb, or poultry products such as chicken or turkey products) and can be applied to the other food product before or during cooking. Using the food products described herein can provide a particular meaty taste and smell, for example, the taste and smell of beef or bacon, to a non-meat product or to a poultry product.

Food products described herein can be packaged in various ways, including being sealed within individual packets or shakers, such that the composition can be sprinkled or spread on top of a food product before or during cooking.

Food products described herein can include additional ingredients including food-grade oils such as canola, corn, sunflower, soybean, olive or coconut oil, seasoning agents such as edible salts (e.g., sodium or potassium chloride) or herbs (e.g., rosemary, thyme, basil, sage, or mint), flavoring agents, proteins (e.g., soy protein isolate, wheat glutin, pea vicilin, and/or pea legumin), protein concentrates (e.g., soy protein concentrate), emulsifiers (e.g., lecithin), gelling agents (e.g., k-carrageenan or gelatin), fibers (e.g., bamboo filer or inulin), or minerals (e.g., iodine, zinc, and/or calcium).

Food products described herein also can include a natural coloring agent such as turmeric or beet juice, or an artificial coloring agent such as azo dyes, triphenylmethanes, xanthenes, quinines, indigoids, titanium dioxide, red #3, red #40, blue #1, or yellow #5.

Food products described herein also can include meat shelf life extenders such as carbon monoxide, nitrites, sodium metabisulfite, Bombal, vitamin E, rosemary extract, green tea extract, catechins and other anti-oxidants.

Food products described herein can be free of animal products (e.g., animal heme-containing proteins or other animal products).

In some embodiments, the food products can be soy-free, wheat-free, yeast-free, MSG-free, and/or free of protein hydrolysis products, and can taste meaty, highly savory, and without off odors or flavors.

Assessment of Food Products

Food products described herein can be assessed using trained human panelists. The evaluations can involve eyeing, feeling, chewing, and tasting of the product to judge product appearance, color, integrity, texture, flavor, and mouth feel, etc. Panelists can be served samples under red or under white light. Samples can be assigned random three-digit numbers and rotated in ballot position to prevent bias. Sensory judgments can be scaled for “acceptance” or “likeability” or use special terminology. For example, letter scales (A for excellent, B for good, C for poor) or number scales may be used (1=dislike, 2=fair, 3=good; 4=very good; 5=excellent). A scale can be used to rate the overall acceptability or quality of the food product or specific quality attributes such beefiness, texture, and flavor. Panelists can be encouraged to rinse their mouths with water between samples, and given opportunity to comment on each sample.

In some embodiments, a food product described herein can be compared to another food product (e.g., meat or meat substitute) based upon olfactometer readings. In various embodiments, the olfactometer can be used to assess odor concentration and odor thresholds, odor suprathresholds with comparison to a reference gas, hedonic scale scores to determine the degree of appreciation, or relative intensity of odors.

In some embodiments, an olfactometer allows the training and automatic evaluation of expert panels. In some embodiments, a food product described herein causes similar or identical olfactometer readings. In some embodiments, the differences between flavors generated using the methods of the invention and meat are sufficiently small to be below the detection threshold of human perception.

In some embodiments, volatile chemicals identified using GCMS can be evaluated. For example, a human can rate the experience of smelling the chemical responsible for a certain peak. This information could be used to further refine the profile of flavor and aroma compounds produced using a heme-containing protein and one or more flavor precursors.

Characteristic flavor and fragrance components are mostly produced during the cooking process by chemical reactions molecules including amino acids, fats and sugars which are found in plants as well as meat. Therefore, in some embodiments, a food product is tested for similarity to meat during or after cooking. In some embodiments human ratings, human evaluation, olfactometer readings, or GCMS measurements, or combinations thereof, are used to create an olfactory map of the food product. Similarly, an olfactory map of the food product, for example, a meat replica, can be created. These maps can be compared to assess how similar the cooked food product is to meat.

In some embodiments, the olfactory map of the food product during or after cooking is similar to or indistinguishable from that of cooked or cooking meat. In some embodiments the similarity is sufficient to be beyond the detection threshold of human perception. The food product can be created so its characteristics are similar to a food product after cooking, but the uncooked food product may have properties that are different from the predicate food product prior to cooking.

These results will demonstrate that the compositions of the invention are judged as acceptably equivalent to real meat products. Additionally, these results can demonstrate that compositions of the invention are preferred by panelist over other commercially available meat substitutes. So, in some embodiments the present invention provides for consumables that are significantly similar to traditional meats and are more meat like than previously known meat alternatives.

The invention will be further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Addition of Heme-Protein Increases Beefy Qualities of Replica Burgers

Replica burgers containing the ingredients in Table 4 and the flavor precursors cysteine (10 mM), glutamic acid (10 mM), glucose (10 mM), and thiamine (1 mM) were prepared. Water was added to make up the balance. See, for example, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/751,816, filed Jan. 11, 2013. Control burgers were prepared as in Table 4 with precursors cysteine (10 mM), glutamic acid (10 mM), glucose (10 mM), and thiamine (1 mM) except LegH was omitted.

After cooking for 5 minutes at 150 C, the replica burgers were evaluated by a trained sensory panel. Panelists were served samples under red lights and each panelist individually evaluated the samples. Samples were assigned a random three-digit number and rotated in ballot position to prevent bias. Panelists were asked to evaluate cooked replica burger samples on multiple flavor, aroma, taste, texture and appearance attributes including but not limited to: beefiness, bloody quality, savory quality, and overall acceptability using a 7-point scale from 1=dislike extremely, to 7=like extremely. Panelists were encouraged to rinse their mouths with water between samples, and to fill out a survey to record their evaluation of each sample.

When replica burgers containing the LegH were compared to the control replica burgers without LegH, the samples containing LegH were rated significantly beefier, bloodier, more savory, and overall preferred compared to those that did not include LegH. See Table 5.

TABLE 4 Replica Burger Ingredients Replica burger % precooked w/w Pea vicilin 3.86 Soy protein concentrate (SPC) 2.52 Bamboo fiber 0.34 NaCl 0.54 Pea legumin 2 Soy Protein Isolate (SPI) (Solae, St. Louis, 4.68 MO) Wheat gluten 4.68 Coconut oil 15 Soy lecithin 0.1 k-carrageenan 1 LegH 1

TABLE 5 Sensory evaluation of replica burger with Heme Beef No 1% Attribute 20/80 Heme Heme Beefyness mean 5.33 1.30 3.20 STDEV 1.58 0.67 0.79 Bloody mean 4.00 1.10 2.78 STDEV 1.32 0.32 1.64 Savory mean 4.67 3.00 5.10 STDEV 1.22 1.63 0.57

Example 2 Replica Burgers with a Flavor Precursor Mixture Taste Beefy and Bloody

Replica burgers containing a flavor precursor mixture of glucose, cysteine, thiamine, and glutamic acid and 1% LegH pre-cooked w/w (see Table 4) were prepared as described in Example 1, and evaluated by a trained sensory panel after the burgers were cooked for 5 minutes at 150 C. Control burgers included LegH and all other ingredients except for the flavor precursor mixture.

Panelists were asked to evaluate the samples overall improvement in taste and descriptively analyze each sample using a 5-point scale from 1=dislike extremely, to 5=like extremely. Panelists were encouraged to rinse their mouths with water between samples, and to fill out a survey to record their evaluation of each sample. The replicate burgers which included LegH and the flavor precursor mixture were described as having bouillon, gravy, meaty, bloody, savory, and beefy notes on taste, and were preferred to the same replica burger with LegH but no added flavor precursor mixture. See, Table 6

TABLE 6 Improvement of overall taste with precursors added to LegH burgers with precursors without precursors Average 3.5 1.8 STDV 0.6 0.5

Example 3 Replica Burgers with Flavor Precursor Mixture Resulting in a Bacon Taste

Replica burgers (see Table 4) were cooked with different precursor mixes (see Table 7) and 1% LegH and evaluated by a trained sensory panel after the burgers were cooked for 5 minutes at 150 C. Control burgers contained LegH and all of the other ingredients except for the flavor precursors. Panelists were asked to evaluate each sample and descriptively analyze of each sample. 5-point scale from 1=dislike extremely, to 5=like extremely. Panelists were encouraged to rinse their mouths with water between samples, and to fill out a survey to record their evaluation of each sample. A replica burger with a precursor mixture of 10 mM glucose, 10 mM ribose, 10 mM cysteine, 1 mM thiamine, 1 mM glutamic acid, 1 mM GMP, and LegH was described as having a bacon aroma and taste, and overall meatiness, savory quality, a very umami quality, a brothy quality, and slight beefy notes. See Table 7 for a summary of the flavor description for the various combinations of flavor precursors and heme-containing protein.

TABLE 7 Flavors generated by addition of precursors to LegH (1%) Precursor (concentration) Flavor Description ribose cysteine some kind of cold-cut/sliced deli meat (10 mM) (10 mM) ribose cysteine IMP bread crust with beef drippings, sweet, grassy, (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) umami ribose cysteine lactic acid bready, malty, browned, breadcrust (10 mM) (10 mM) (1 mM) ribose cysteine lysine savory, beefy, little grassy, brothy, bread (10 mM) (10 mM) (5 mM) ribose cysteine alanine savory, weak beefy, brothy, little metallic (10 mM) (10 mM) (5 mM) ribose cysteine I + G savory, weak beefy, brothy, sweet (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) ribose cysteine methionine cooked potato (10 mM) (10 mM) ribose cysteine glutamic acid little meaty, pretzel, brothy, savory, sweet, (10 mM) (10 mM) (5 mM) chocolate glucose ribose cysteine thiamine glutamic acid slight beefy, browned, grasssy, (10 mM) (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) (5 mM) glucose ribose cysteine thiamine glutamic acid IMP bacon, very umami, savory, brothy, slight beef (10 mM) (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) (5 mM) (2 mM) glucose cysteine thiamine glutamic acid beef jerky, bloody, meaty, brothy (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) (5 mM) glucose cysteine thiamine glutamic acid lactic acid savory, beefy, bloody, meaty, savory, gravy (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) (5 mM) (1 mM) glucose cysteine thiamine glutamic acid lysine roast beef (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) (5 mM) (5 mM) glucose cysteine thiamine glutamic acid alanine boiled beef, sweet (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) (5 mM) (5 mM) glucose cysteine thiamine glutamic acid I + G beefy with a sulfury note (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) (5 mM) (2 mM) glucose cysteine I + G sweet, malty, umami, meaty (10 mM) (10 mM) (2 mM) glucose I + G savory, roast beef, grassy (10 mM) (2 mM) glucose glutamic acid umami, savory, meaty, sweaty, fermented (10 mM) (5 mM)

Example 4 Type of Sugar Modulates Flavor Compounds Created in the Presence of Hemeprotein

The addition of different sugars to flavor reaction mixtures containing a hemeprotein and one or more flavor precursor compounds resulted in distinct differences in the flavor compounds generated and the overall flavor profile. LegH heme protein at 1% pre-cooked w/w/was mixed with cysteine (10 mM) and glucose (20 mM) at pH 6 in phosphate buffer to form a flavor reaction mixture and heated to 150 C for 3 minutes; this reaction created flavor compounds known to be present in meat; see Table 8. Similarly, a flavor reaction mixture made when LegH heme protein at 1% was mixed with cysteine (10 mM) and ribose (20 mM) at pH 6 and heated to 150 C for 3 minutes created flavor compounds known to be in meat; see Table 8.

The characteristic flavor and fragrance components were mostly produced during the cooking process when the flavor precursor molecules reacted with the heme-protein. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) is a method that combines the features of gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry to separate and identify different substances within a test sample. Samples were evaluated by GCMS to identify the flavor compounds generated after heating and also evaluated for their sensory profiles. Volatile chemicals were isolated from the head space around the flavor reactions. The profile of the volatile chemicals in the headspace around the flavor reaction mixtures is shown in Table 8. In particular, the use of ribose created some additional compounds as compared to glucose, as shown in Table 8.

Notably, the control mixtures of cysteine with ribose or glucose heated in the absence of the LegH heme-protein did not generate the same set of flavor compounds. The flavor reaction mixtures containing LegH also were evaluated by a blinded trained sensory panel, which described the samples with ribose as having beefy, savory, brothy, and gravy-like notes, and the samples with glucose as savory, bloody, metallic, raw meat, and bouillon-like.

TABLE 8 Flavor compounds generated with cysteine, LegH, and either glucose or ribose in the flavor reaction mixture. LegH 1% cysteine (10 mM), cysteine (10 mM), Compounds created glucose (20 mM) ribose (20 mM) benzaldehyde X X 2-butanone X X dimethyl trisulfide X X 2-pentyl-furan X X 2-methyl-propanal X X thiazole X X butyrolactone X X 2-acetylthiazole X X pentanal X X 3-methyl-butanal X X methyl-thiirane X X nonanal X X heptanal X X 2,3-butanedione X X 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene X X propyl-cyclopropane X X 2-hexyl-furan X X butanal X X 2-methyl-butanal X X 2-ethyl-furan X 2-octanone X X propanal X X trichloromethane X 2-methyl-furan X X furan X X pyrazine X X thiophene X X 1,3-dimethyl-benzene X X octane X octanal X X thiazole X X 2-pentanone X furfural X X 2-nonanone X X (Z)-2-heptenal X X (E)-2-heptenal X X 1-octene X X formic acid, heptyl ester X X 2-pentyl-thiophene X 1-octen-3-one X X 3-pentyl-furan X X 2-propenal X (E)-2-tridecen-1-ol X benzene X (E)-4-octene X 1-penten-3-one X 4-penten-2-one X X 2-methyl-thiazole X methyl-pyrazine X trans-2-(2-pentenyl)furan X 3-ethylcyclopentanone X pyrrole X X 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde X 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde X

Example 5 Heme-Protein in the Presence of Thiamine Affects the Production of Certain Flavor Compounds

The addition of thiamine in a flavor reaction mixtures with a heme protein and other flavor precursors affected the formation of 5-Thiazoleethanol, 4-methyl-furan, 3,3′-dithiobis[2-methyl-thiazole, and 4-methylthiazole. These compounds are known to be present in meat and have beefy, meaty taste notes.

Flavor reaction mixtures at pH 6 containing LegH (1%), cysteine (10 mM), thiamine (1 mM), either glucose or ribose (20 mM), and with or without glutamic acid (10 mM) were prepared and subsequently heated to 150 C for 3 minutes. These flavor reaction samples then were evaluated by GCMS for the flavor compounds generated and evaluated by a trained panel for their sensory profiles. Volatile chemicals were isolated from the head space around the flavor reactions. GCMS showed 4-methyl-5-thiazoleethanol, 3,3′-dithiobis[2-methyl]-furan, and 4-methylthiazole compounds were created by a mixture of LegH with thiamine, a sugar (either glucose or ribose), and cysteine. The same flavor reaction mixtures without thiamine did not generate these compounds; additionally these compounds were not generated when heme-proteins were not present in the flavor reaction mixtures.

The flavor reaction samples also were evaluated by a blinded trained sensory panel, which described the samples with the addition of thiamine as more complex in taste and more beefy, meaty, and savory.

Example 6 Heme-Proteins with Nucleotides Controls Particular Flavor Compound Production

The addition of inosine monophosphate and guanosine monophosphate in mixes with heme protein and other precursors controlled the formation of flavor compounds (E)-4-octene, 2-ethyl-furan, 2-pentanone, 2,3-butanedione, 2-methyl-thiazole, methyl-pyrazine, tridecane, (E)-2-octenal, 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, and 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde. These compounds are known to be present in meat and have a beefy, meaty, buttery, and or savory flavor notes.

Reactions containing heme protein at 1% (LegH) with cysteine (10 mM), and glucose (20 mM), 1 mM IMP and 1 mM GMP, at pH 6.0 were prepared and heated to 150 C for 3 minutes. Characteristic flavor and fragrance components were mostly produced during the cooking process where precursors reacting heme-protein. These samples were evaluated by GCMS for the flavor compounds generated and evaluated for the sensory experience. Volatile chemicals were isolated from the head space around the flavor reaction and identified using GCMS, creating a profile of the volatile chemicals in the headspace around the flavor reaction mixture. GCMS showed 4-octene, 2-ethyl furan, 2-pentanone, 2,3-butanedione, 2-methyl-thiazole, methyl-pyrazine, tridecane, 2-octenal, 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde compounds were created by a mixture of hemeprotein LegH with IMP, GMP, glucose, and cysteine. The same samples without IMP and GMP did not generate these compounds, additionally these compounds were also not created when heme-proteins were not present, just precursor molecules. Sensory evaluation by blinded trained panelist found the samples with the addition of inosine and guanosine as described as having more complexity in taste and more beefy, meaty, brothy and savory. FIG. 2 shows the abundance of the novel flavor compounds created with heme protein at 1% was mixed in a reaction at pH 6, with cysteine (10 mM), and glucose (20 mM), IMP (1 mM) and GMP (1 mM), and detected by solid phase microextraction (SPME) and then detected by GCMS.

Example 7 Flavor Generation with the Addition of a Particular Organic Acid

The addition of lactic acid in mixes with heme protein, ribose, and cysteine controlled the formation of the flavor compounds nonanal, thiazole, 2-acetylthiazole, and 8-methyl-1-undecene. These compounds are known to be present in meat.

Reactions containing heme protein at 1%, cysteine (10 mM), and ribose (20 mM), and lactic acid (1 mM), pH 6.0, were prepared and heated to 150 C for 3 minutes. Characteristic flavor and fragrance components were mostly produced during the cooking process where precursors reacting heme-protein. These samples were evaluated by GCMS for the flavor compounds generated and evaluated for the sensory experience. Volatile chemicals were isolated from the head space around the flavor reaction and identified using GCMS, creating a profile of the generated compounds. Nonanal, thiazole, 2-acetylthiazole, and 8-methyl-1-undecene compounds were created by a mixture of LegH with lactic acid, ribose, and cysteine. The same samples without lactic acid did not generate these compounds, additionally these compounds were not created in the absence of heme-proteins.

Sensory evaluation by blinded trained panelist found the samples with the addition of lactic acid as described as beefy, savory, browned, bready, and having malty notes. The sample with everything but lactic acid rated lower in browned, bready and malty notes.

Example 8 Flavor generated with the addition of a particular amino acid

The addition of lysine in mixes with heme protein ribose, and cysteine controlled the formation of flavor compounds dimethyl trisulfide, nonanal, 2-pentyl-thiophene, furfural, 2-nonenal, 1-octanol, 2-nonenal, thiazole, 2-acetylthiazole, phenylacetaldehyde, 2-acetylthiazole. These compounds are known to be present in meat and some have a beefy, meaty, and or savory flavor.

Reactions containing heme protein at 1%, cysteine (10 mM), and ribose (20 mM), and lysine (1 mM), at pH 6.0, were prepared and heated to 150 C for 3 minutes. These samples were evaluated by GCMS for the flavor compounds generated and evaluated for the sensory experience. Characteristic flavor and fragrance components were mostly produced during the cooking process where precursors could react with the heme-protein. These samples were evaluated by GCMS for the flavor compounds generated and evaluated for the sensory experience. Volatile chemicals were isolated from the head space around the flavor reaction. Dimethyl trisulfide, nonanal, 2-pentyl-thiophene, furfural, 2-nonenal, 1-octanol, 2-nonenal, thiazole, 2-acetylthiazole, phenylacetaldehyde, 2-acetylthiazole compounds were created by a mixture of LegH with lactic acid, ribose, and cysteine. The same samples without lactic acid did not generate these compounds, additionally these compounds were not created when heme-proteins were not present, just precursor molecules. Sensory evaluation by blinded trained panelist found the samples with the addition of lysine as described as roast beefy, savory, and browned. The addition of lysine increased the roasted browned notes.

Example 9 Flavor Compound Production by Different Heme-Proteins

The addition of different types of heme-proteins (LegH, Barley, B. myoglobin, or A. aeolicus) in flavor reaction mixtures containing one or more flavor precursor compounds results in many of the same key meat flavors, including but not limited to 2-pentyl-furan, 2,3-Butanedione, Thiophene, 2-methyl-thiazole, Pyrazine, Furan, Pyrrole, 2-methyl-furan and distinct differences in the flavor compounds, including but not limited to 2-pentyl-thiophene, Nonanal, 2-Nonanone, and 1-Octen-3-one. These differences in flavor compounds can change the overall taste profile. The different types of heme-protein were LegH, Barley, B. myoglobin, or A. aeolicus used at 1% w/w in a reaction mixed with cysteine (10 mM) and ribose (10 mM) at pH 6. The pre-reaction mixture was heated to 150 C for 3 minutes; this reaction created flavor compounds known to be present in meat; see Table 9. The characteristic flavor and fragrance components are mostly produced during the cooking process where the flavor precursor molecules react with the heme-protein. Samples were evaluated by GCMS to identify the flavor compounds generated after heating and also evaluated for their sensory profiles. Volatile chemicals were isolated from the head space around the flavor reactions. Table 9 shows the similarity and differences in volatile flavor compounds created by the different types of heme-proteins.

TABLE 9 Flavor compounds created by different heme-protein when heated with ribose and cysteine. Name LegH Barley B. myoglobin A. aeolicus Furan x x x x Thiazole x x x x benzaldehyde x x x x 2-acetylthiazole x x x x 2-methyl-propanal x x x x furfural x x x x 2,3-butanedione x x x x 2-pentyl-furan x x x x 2-pentanone x x pyrazine x x x x dimethyl trisulfide x x x x 3-methyl-butanal x x x 2-methyl-thiazole x x x x pentanal x x x x 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene x x x x methacrolein x x x x heptanal x x x x 2-methyl-butanal x x x isothiazole x x x x thiophene x x x x propanal x x x x 2-heptenal x x x methyl-pyrazine x x x x 1-octene x x x butanal x x x x 2-acetyl-propen-2-ol x x x x pyrrole x x x x 2-methyl-furan x x x x nonanal x x x 2-propenal x x x 2-decenal x x x 2-nonanone x x 2-octanone x x x 2-tridecen-1-ol, x x 2-octanone x 2-octenal x x 4-methyl-2-heptanone x x octanal x x 2-undecenal x butyrolactone x 1-octen-3-one x 3-methylheptyl acetate x 2-pentyl-thiophene x

Example 10 Generation of Meat Flavors from Different Lipids

Several different samples including oils (canola oil or coconut oil), free fatty acids (FFA) (linoleic acid (C18:2), oleic acid (C18:1), stearic acid (C18:0), or myristic acid (C14:0)) and phospholipids (PL) (beef heart polar lipids extract, Biolipon95 (from Perimond), or NatCholinePC40 (from Perimond)) were tested for their ability to produce beefy flavor in the absence and in the presents of other precursors. Oils, FFAs, and PLs were added to 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer (PPB) pH 6.0 or a Maillard reaction mix (MRM) containing 50 mM potassium phosphate pH 6.0, 5 mM Cysteine, 10 mM Glucose, 0.1 mM Thiamine, and 0.1% (w/v) LegHemoglobin. Lipids in combination with MRM were designed to capture the cross reactions of lipid degradation and Maillard reaction productions while lipids in phosphate buffer functioned as a lipid control. The oils were added at 3% of the total 1 mL volume of solution while FFAs and PLs were added at 1% of the total 1 mL volumes. All samples were cooked at 150° C. for 3 mins, cooled to 50° C. and then analyzed using GCMS (SPME fiber sampling of headspace). After all samples were analyzed by GCMS the caps were removed and samples were smelled by a trained flavor scientist and aromas recorded.

TABLE 10 Legend showing components of each sample Sample Name Solution Additives MRM None Maillard Reaction Mix None MRM_Linoelic Acid Maillard Reaction Mix 1% linoleic acid MRM_Oleic Acid Maillard Reaction Mix 1% oleic acid MRM_C14 Maillard Reaction Mix 1% C14:0 free fatty acid MRM_C18 Maillard Reaction Mix 1% C18:0 free fatty acid MRM_Canola Maillard Reaction Mix 3% Canola Oil MRM_Coconut Maillard Reaction Mix 3% Coconut Oil MRM_BeefHeart Maillard Reaction Mix 1% Beef Heart Polar Lipids Extract MRM_Biolipon95 Maillard Reaction Mix 1% Biolipon95 (emulsifier) MRM_NatCholinePC40 Maillard Reaction Mix 1% NatCholinePC40 (emulsifier) KPhos6_Linoelic Acid PPB, pH 6 1% linoelic acid KPhos6_Oleic Acid PPB, pH 6 1% oleic acid KPhos6_C14 PPB, pH 6 1% C14:0 free fatty acid KPhos6_C18 PPB, pH 6 1% C18:0 free fatty acid KPhos6_Canola PPB pH 6 3% Canola Oil KPhos6_Coconut PPB, pH 6 3% Coconut Oil KPhos6_BeefHeart PPB, pH 6 1% Beef Heart Polar Lipids Extract KPhos6_Biolipon95 PPB, pH 6 1% Biolipon95 (emulsifier) KPhos6_NatCholinePC40 PPB, pH 6 1% NatCholinePC40 (emulsifier)

Table 11 contains the aroma descriptions and Table 12 contains the GCMS data from the most interesting samples analyzed. Many of the lipids introduced a “fatty” aroma to MRM that was otherwise absent. The combinations of Linoleic Acid or NatCholinePC40 in MRM produced the greatest abundance of fatty compounds suggesting that these lipids may improve the flavor perception of beef tallow. Linoleic Acid and NatCholinePC40 also showed high abundance of earthy-mushroom aromas. The addition of lipids to MRM significantly increased the abundance of “nutty & roasted” aromas. Less desirable “green” aroma compounds were most prominent in samples with unsaturated free fatty acids (linoleic acid or oleic acid) or phospholipids. In general, the addition of lipids significantly increased the number of target beef compounds made.

TABLE 11 Aroma descriptions of each sample after it was cooked. Sample Names Aroma Descriptions MRM_Only brothy, malty, beef stew KPhos6_BeefHeart fatty, creamy, beef tallow, slight sweet, slight roasted nutty MRM_BeefHeart fatty, beef tallow, old meat, mushroom KPhos6_Biolipon95 fatty, fresh MRM_Biolipon95 fatty, brothy, hay, malty green KPhos6_NatCholinePC40 light fatty, fresh MRM_NatCholinePC40 fatty, beef tallow, brothy K-Phos6_C14 light/faint plastic/waxy MRM_014 brothy, beefy, minty, fresh K-Phos6_C18 light/faint plastic/waxy MRM_C18 beefy with cucumber &/or pepper aroma K-Phos6_Canola fresh, cucumber MRM_Canola fatty, brothy, oil, roasted nuts K-Phos6_Coconut nothing MRM_Coconut brothy, beefy, slight fatty, crackers K-Phos6_Oleic Acid fresh, cucumber, camphorous/minty-like MRM_Oleic Acid herbal, plastic, slight cheesy, brothy K-Phos6_Linoelic Acid light plastic MRM_Linoelic Acid fatty, light waxy, brothy, herbal

TABLE 12 List of aromatic compounds found in Beef by GCMS and a chart showing which were detected in each lipid plus MRM sample. MRM_Linoleic Compounds in Beef MRM only MRM_BeefHeart MRM_NatCholinePC40 acid (s)-isopropyl lactate N N N N 1-ethyl-5- Y Y Y Y methylcyclopentene 1-heptanol N Y N N 1-hepten-3-ol N Y Y Y 1-heptene N Y Y Y 2-methyl-1-heptene N N N N 1-hexanol N Y Y Y 2-ethyl-1-hexanol N N N N 1-nonanol N N Y N 1-nonene N Y Y N 1-octanol N Y Y N 1-octen-3-ol N Y Y Y 1-octen-3-one Y Y Y Y 1-octene N N N N 1-pentanol N Y Y Y 1-penten-3-ol N Y Y N 1-propanol N N N N 8-methyl-1-undecene N Y Y Y 1,3-hexadiene N N N Y 3-ethyl-2-methyl-1,3- N Y Y Y hexadiene 1,3-octadiene Y N N Y 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene N N N N 2,3-dihydro-5,6-dimethyl- N N N N 1,4-dioxin 1,7-octadien-3-ol N Y N N 1h-pyrrole-2- N N N N carboxaldehyde 2-methyl-1H-pyrrole N N N N 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline Y N N N 2-acetylthiazole Y Y Y Y 2-butanone N Y Y Y 2-butenal N Y Y Y 2-ethyl-2-butenal N N N Y 3-methyl-2-butenal N N Y Y 3-methyl-2-cyclohexen-1- N N N N one 2-decanone Y Y Y N (E)-2-decenal N N N N (Z)-2-decenal Y Y Y Y 2-furanmethanol N N N N 2-heptanone Y Y Y Y 6-methyl-2-heptanone N N Y N (E)-2-heptenal N Y Y Y (Z)-2-heptenal N N N Y (E)-2-hexenal N Y Y Y 2-ethyl-2-hexenal N N N N 2-methyl-2-heptene Y N N N 2-n-heptylfuran Y N N N 2-n-octylfuran Y Y Y N 2-nonanone N Y Y N (E)-2-nonenal Y Y Y Y (Z)-2-nonenal N N N Y 2-octanone Y Y Y Y (Z)-2-octen-1-ol Y Y Y Y (E)-2-octenal N Y Y Y 2-pentanone N Y Y N 1-propoxy-2-propanol N N N N 1-(acetyloxy)-2-propanone Y N N N 1-hydroxy-2-propanone Y N N N 2-propenal N N N Y 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde Y Y Y Y 2-undecenal N Y Y Y 2,3-butanedione N N N Y 2,3-pentanedione N N N N (E,E)-2,4-decadienal N Y Y Y 2,4-decadienal N N N Y (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal N Y Y Y (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal N Y Y Y 2,6-dimethylpyrazine N N N N (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal N N Y N 5-ethyldihydro-2(3H)- N Y Y Y furanone 5-methyl-2(3H)-furanone N N N N dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)- N N Y Y furanone dihydro-5-propyl-2(3H)- N N N N furanone 2(5H)-furanone N N N N tetrahydro-6-methyl-2H- N N N N pyran-2-one 3-ethylcyclopentanone N Y Y Y 3-hexanone N N N N 3-methyl-2- N N N N thiophenecarboxaldehyde 3-octanone Y Y N Y 3-octen-2-one N Y Y Y 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde N Y Y Y (E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one N N Y Y dihydro-2-methyl-3(2H)- N N N N furanone 4-cyanocyclohexene N N N N 4-cyclopentene-1,3-dione N N Y N 4-decyne N Y N N (Z)-4-heptenal N Y Y Y 4-methyloctanoic acid N N N N (E)-4-octene N N N N 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy- Y N N N 6-methyl-4(H)-pyran-4-one 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one Y N N N acetaldehyde N N N Y acetic acid N N N N acetic acid ethenyl ester Y N N N acetoin Y N N N acetone Y N N Y acetonitrile N N N Y benzaldehyde Y Y Y Y 4-ethyl-benzaldehyde N Y Y N benzene Y N N N benzoic acid, hydrazide Y N N N butanal Y N N Y 2-methyl-butanal N N N N 3-methyl-butanal Y N N N butanoic acid N N N N butyrolactone Y Y N Y caprolactam N N N N carbon disulfide N N N Y 1-ethyl-1-methyl- Y Y Y Y cyclopentane propyl-cyclopropane N N Y Y decanal N Y Y N dihydro-3-(2H)-thiophenone N N N N Dimethyl sulfide Y N N N dimethyl sulfone N N N N dimethyl trisulfide Y Y N N ethanethiol N N N N ethanol N N N Y 1-(1(H)-pyrrol-2-yl)- N N N N ethanone 1-(2-furanyl)-ethanone N N N N ethosuximide Y N N N formic acid, heptyl ester Y Y N N furan Y N N Y 2-ethyl-furan Y N N N 2-hexyl-furan Y N N Y 2-methyl-furan N N N Y 2-pentyl-furan N Y Y Y 2-propyl-furan N N Y Y 3-methyl-furan Y N N N 3-pentyl-furan Y Y Y Y furfural N Y Y Y heptanal N Y Y Y heptanoic acid N N N Y 2-methyl-hex-2-yn-4-one N N N N hexanoic acid N N N Y hydrogen sulfide N N N N m-aminophenylacetylene N N N N maleic anhydride N N N N methacrolein N N N N methanethiol N N N N methyl ethanoate N N N N methyl isobutyl ketone Y N N N n-caproic acid vinyl ester N Y Y N nonanal N Y Y Y 3-methyl-nonane Y N N N nonanoic acid Y N N N octanal N Y Y Y octane N N N Y octanoic acid N N N Y oxalic acid, isobutyl pentyl Y N N N ester p-cresol N N N N pentanal N N N Y pentanoic acid Y N N Y 4-ethyl-phenol N Y Y N phenylacetaldehyde Y Y Y Y (p-hydroxyphenyl)- Y N N N phosphonic acid propanal N N N Y 2-methyl-propanal N N N N propanoic acid N N N N 2-methyl-propanoic acid Y N N N propanoic acid, ethenyl ester N N N N pyrazine N Y N Y 2-ethyl-5-methyl-pyrazine N N N N 2-ethyl-6-methyl-pyrazine N N N N 2,3-dimethyl-pyrazine N N N N 2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine N N N N 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethyl- Y N N N pyrazine ethyl-pyrazine N N N N methyl-pyrazine N N N N trimethyl-pyrazine Y N N N pyridine Y N Y N pyrrole Y Y Y Y styrene Y N Y N thiazole Y Y Y Y methyl-thiirane N N N N thiophene N N N Y 2-hexyl-thiophene Y N Y N 2-pentyl-thiophene N Y N N trans-2-(2-pentenyl)furan N Y Y N trans-3-nonen-2-one N Y Y Y undecanoic acid N N N N Total # of Compounds 54 63 66 76 Detected:

In samples having fatty or creamy aromas, 2,4-decadienal, (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal, and/or (E,E)-2,4-decadienal were detected in the KPhos6_BeefHeart, MRM_BeefHeart, MRM_BioLipon95, MRM_NatCholinePC40, Kphos6_Canola, MRM_Canola, KPhos6_Oleic Acid, KPhos6_Linoleic acid and MRM_Linoleic acid samples. For (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_NatCholinePC40 sample, followed by the MRM_Linoleic acid, KPhos6_Linoleic acid, MRM_BeefHeart, MRM_BioLipon95, KPhos6_BeefHeart, MRM_Oleic Acid, and KPhos6_Oleic Acid samples. For (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_NatCholinePC40 sample followed by the MRM_Canola sample. (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal also was detected in the MRM_BioLipon95, MRM_BeefHeart, and MRM_Linoleic acid samples. For (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_Canola and MRM_Linoleic acid samples. (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal also was detected in the Kphos6_Canola, MRM_NatCholinePC40, MRM_BioLipon95, MRM_BeefHeart, and KPhos6_Linoleic acid samples. For 2,4-decadienal, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_Linoleic acid sample. 2,4-decadienal also was detected in KPhos6_Linoleic acid, MRM_Canola, and KPhos6_Oleic Acid samples.

In samples having earthy or mushroom aromas, 3-octen-2-one, 1-octen-3-one, 3-octanone, and/or 1-octen-3-ol were detected in the KPhos6_BeefHeart, MRM_BeefHeart, Kphos_BioLipon95, MRM_BioLipon95, Kphos_NatCholinePC40, MRM_NatCholinePC40, MRM_Canola, KPhos6_Oleic Acid, MRM_Oleic Acid, KPhos6_Linoleic acid, and MRM_Linoleic acid samples. For 1-octen-3-ol, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_Linoleic acid sample, followed by MRM_NatCholinePC40, KPhos6_Linoleic acid, MRM_BeefHeart, KPhos6_BeefHeart, MRM_Canola, MRM_BioLipon95, KPhos6_Oleic Acid, and MRM_Oleic Acid samples. 3-octanone was detected in the MRM_Oleic Acid, KPhos6_Linoleic acid, and MRM_Linoleic acid samples. For 1-octen-3-one, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_Linoleic acid and MRM_BeefHeart samples, followed by KPhos6_Linoleic acid, MRM_NatCholinePC40, KPhos6_BeefHeart, MRM_BioLipon95, MRM_Oleic Acid, and KPhos6_Oleic Acid samples. For 3-octen-2-one, the strongest signal intensity was in the KPhos6_Linoleic acid sample, followed by MRM_Linoleic acid, MRM_NatCholinePC40, KPhos6_BeefHeart, KPhos6_Oleic Acid, MRM_Oleic Acid, MRM_BeefHeart, MRM_BioLipon95, MRM_Canola, Kphos_BioLipon95, and Kphos_NatCholinePC40. Pyrazine was detected in the MRM_Coconut, MRM_C18, MRM_C14, and MRM_BioLipon95 samples.

In samples having a nutty and roasted aroma, thiazole and 2-acetylthiazole were the most abundant compounds detected, along with pyrazine, methyl pyrazine, trimethyl pyrazine, and 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine. 2-acetylthiazole was detected in all samples with MRM and most abundant in samples with MRM_Beefheat, MRM_biolipon95, MRM_Canola, and MRM_coconut. Thiazole was created in samples with MRM-Coconut, MRM_BeefHeat, MRM_Biolipon95, MRM_C14, MRM_C18, MRM_Canola, MRM_Oleic acid and MRM_Linoleic acid and MRM_NatCholinePC40. Pyrazine was present in the largest amount in samples with MRM-Coconut, followed by samples MRM_BeefHeat, MRM_Biolipon95, MRM_C14, MRM_C18, MRM_Canola having roughly equal amount, MRM_Oleic acid and MRM_Linoleic acid sample had even less. Methyl-pyrazine was present in MRM_Biolipon95 and MRM_Coconut. 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine and trimethyl-pyrazine, were present only without phospholipids in the MRM.

In samples having green, vegetable, or grass aromas, 1-heptanol, 1-hepten-3-ol, 1-hexanol, (E)-2-heptenal, (Z)-2-heptenal, (E)-2-hexenal, 2-pentyl-furan, and/or heptanal were detected in the KPhos6_BeefHeart, MRM_BeefHeart, Kphos_BioLipon95, MRM_BioLipon95, Kphos_NatCholinePC40, MRM_NatCholinePC40, Kphos_C14, MRM_C14, Kphos_C18, MRM_C18, MRM_Canola, MRM_Coconut, KPhos6_Oleic Acid, MRM_Oleic Acid, KPhos6_Linoleic acid, and MRM_Linoleic acid samples. For 2-pentyl-furan, the strongest signal intensity was in the KPhos6_BeefHeart sample, followed by the KPhos6_Linoleic acid, MRM_BioLipon95, MRM_Linoleic acid, MRM_BeefHeart, MRM_Oleic Acid, MRM_NatCholinePC40, MRM_Canola, KPhos6_Oleic Acid, and Kphos_NatCholinePC40 samples. For (E)-2-heptenal, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_BeefHeart, MRM_Canola, MRM_Oleic Acid, and KPhos6_Linoleic acid samples, followed by the KPhos6_Oleic Acid, MIRM_BioLipon95, KPhos6_BeefHeart, MRM_Linoleic acid, MRM_NatCholinePC40, Kphos_BioLipon95, and Kphos_NatCholinePC40 samples. For (Z)-2-heptenal, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_Linoleic acid sample. MRM_Linoleic acid also was detected in the KPhos6_Linoleic acid sample. For heptanal, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_Oleic Acid sample, followed by the KPhos6_Oleic Acid, MRM_C14, MRM_C18, MRM_Canola, MRM_BeefHeart, MRM_NatCholinePC40, MRM_Linoleic acid, and KPhos6_BeefHeart samples. For, (E)-2-hexenal, the strongest signal intensity was in the MRM_Linoleic acid sample, followed by the MRM_NatCholinePC40, KPhos6_Linoleic acid, and MRM_Oleic Acid samples.

Example 11 Creation of Beefy Flavors Using Complex Precursor Mixtures

A formulation was prepared (the “magic mix,” see Table 13 containing the estimated concentrations of amino acids, sugars, and other small molecules in beef based on their values reported in literature. The magic mix was tested for its ability to produce beefy flavors in the presence of LegHemoglobin (LegH). The magic mix and 1% w/v LegH were added to the meat replica, pH 6.0 (see Table 4) and baked in a convection oven for 7 minutes at 160° C. A control sample was prepared by adding 1% w/v LegH to the meat replica, pH 6.0 and baking in a convection oven for 7 minutes at 160° C.

The meat replica sample containing only LegH, was compared to the meat replica sample containing the magic mix and LegH by a sensory panel and GCMS analysis. Five tasters rated the flavored meat replicas for beefiness, bitterness, and levels of savory flavors, and off flavors. Each property was rated on a 7 point scale in which 7 was the highest amount of the specified property (e.g., a standard 80:20 ground beef would be rated 7 on the beefy scale). The Magic Mix flavor was rated one point higher in beefy character than the LegH only sample (FIG.2).

To determine which chemical products were produced upon heating, a solution of Magic Mix was prepared with 1% w/v LegH at pH 6.0. The samples were cooked with shaking at 150° C. for three minutes, then Solid Phase Micro Extraction (SPME) was performed for twelve minutes at 50° C. to extract the volatile compounds above the headspace of the reaction. A search algorithm was used to analyze the retention time and mass fingerprint information of the volatile compounds and assign chemical names to peaks. Table 14 shows the compounds identified in both the Magic Mix+LegH (MM, average of two samples) and in the LegH alone in buffer (LegH, average of five samples) samples. The compounds in Table 14 are listed in order of the retention time (R.T., in seconds), and are designated as having a zero peak area (0), or a small (S), medium (M), or large (L) average peak area. Hundreds of compounds were identified between the samples, many of which are characteristic of beefy aroma, including but not limited to 1,3-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-benzene, 2-methyl 3-furanthiol, and Bis(2-methyl-4,5-dihydro-3-furyl) disulfide, which increased in the samples containing the Magic Mix and LegH.

TABLE 13 Chemical entities added to the Magic Mix Chemical entity mM Alanine 5.6 Arginine 0.6 Asparagine 0.8 Aspartate 0.8 Cysteine 0.8 Glutamic acid 3.4 Glutamine 0.7 Glycine 1.3 Histidine 0.6 Isoleucine 0.8 Leucine 0.8 Lysine 0.7 Methionine 0.7 Phenylalanine 0.6 Proline 0.9 Threonine 0.8 Tryptophan 0.5 Tyrosine 0.6 Valine 0.9 glucose 5.6 Ribose 6.7 Maltodextrin 5.0 Thiamine 0.5 GMP 0.24 IMP 0.6 Lactic acid 1.0 creatine 1.0 NaCl 10 KCl 10 Kphos pH 6.0 10

TABLE 14 Compounds identified with GC-MS analysis in samples with MM and LegH, or LegH alone (average of five samples) MM with LegH R.T.(s) Name LegH alone 248 acetaldehyde L S 256.3 carbon disulfide L S 264.3 dimethyl sulfide S 0 265 oxalic acid, isobutyl pentyl ester M 0 268.1 2,3,4-trimethyl-pentane M 0 269.2 methanethiol S 0 283.4 propanal M 0 285.4 octane M 0 287.1 furan M 0 295.3 2-methyl-propanal L S 297.6 acetone L S 319.3 2-propenal M S 338.1 2-methyl-furan M S 342.1 butanal L S 344.2 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptene M 0 346.3 methacrolein M 0 357.4 methyl-thiirane L 0 360.2 3-methyl-furan S 0 363.7 butanone L S 368.9 2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-furan M S 376.4 2-methyl-butanal L M 381.1 3-methyl-butanal L M 390.6 isopropyl alcohol 0 S 399.6 ethanol L M 406.2 2-propenoic acid, methyl ester M 0 408.2 benzene S 0 414.4 methyl vinyl ketone M 0 416.4 2,2,4,6,6-pentamethyl-heptane M 0 422.6 2-ethyl-furan S 0 438.4 2-ethylacrolein M 0 449.9 2-pentanone S 0 453.2 pentanal/2,3-butanedione L 0 453.8 2,3-butanedione L M 472.8 4,7-dimethyl-undecane M S 485.9 2-methyl-pentanal M 0 492.6 2-methyl-1-penten-1-one S 0 496.6 (E)-3-penten-2-one M 0 508.6 1-penten-3-one M 0 510.6 trichloromethane M M 520.4 p-dithiane-2,5-diol M 0 525.5 3-methyl-pentanal M 0 535.1 (E)-5-decene M 0 536.5 toluene M S 537.9 2-butenal M S 543.8 4-penten-2-one M 0 550.8 methyl thiolacetate M 0 683.7 p-xylene S 0 727.4 dimethyl selenone M 0 738.3 methyl isopropyl disulphide M 0 755 2-heptanone M 0 758.7 heptanal L 0 781.9 1,3-diisopropoxy-1,3-dimethyl-1,3- S M disilacyclobutane 789.4 3-methyl-2-butenal M 0 793.4 4-methyl-2-heptanone M 0 810.4 pyrazine M 0 818.8 isothiazole S 0 827.1 acetyl valeryl M 0 831.8 2-pentyl-furan L 0 851 2-methyl-thiazole S 0 853.3 isothiocyanato-methane S 0 870.9 thiazole L 0 879.2 styrene M 0 890.7 1-(methylthio)-propane M 0 895.6 methyl-pyrazine M 0 910.5 thiocyanic acid, methyl ester S 0 918.6 4-methylthiazole M 0 921.4 2-octanone M 0 923.9 2-methyl-cyclopentanone M 0 927.9 octanal L S 934.3 tridecane M 0 948.8 trans-2-(2-pentenyl)furan S 0 961.9 1-hydroxy-2-propanone M 0 974.5 (E)-2-heptenal M 0 987.4 5-methyl-1-undecene M 0 993.8 2-hexyl-furan M 0 1007.8 7-methyl-(E)-5-undecene M 0 1024.1 2-methyl-5-(methylthio)-furan, S 0 1058.6 2-butyl-1-decene M 0 1079.3 dimethyl trisulfide L S 1085.3 2-nonanone M 0 1093.2 nonanal L M 1142.3 1,3-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-benzene M 0 1149.6 (E)-2-octenal M 0 1164.5 1-heptanol M 0 1193.5 methional L 0 1198.8 acetic acid M S 1207.2 furfural M 0 1242.1 2-decanone M 0 1250.8 decanal M 0 1265.2 1-decen-3-one M 0 1283.3 pyrrole M 0 1292.6 5-ethenyl-4-methyl-thiazole M 0 1294.3 benzaldehyde L M 1303.7 2-n-octylfuran M 0 1305.6 (E)-2-nonenal M 0 1341.4 1-octanol M 0 1361.1 2-methyl-1(H)-pyrrole S 0 1391.7 2-undecanone M 0 1401.2 (E)-2-octen-1-ol M 0 1448 butyrolactone S S 1456.3 (E)-2-decenal M 0 1462.4 phenylacetaldehyde L S 1466.3 2-acetylthiazole L 0 1471.3 acetophenone M S 1475.4 1-nonanol M 0 1487 methyl (methylthio)methyl disulfide M 0 1497.1 5-(2-chloroethyl)-4-methylthiazole L 0 1497.5 1-(ethylthio)-2-(methylthio)-buta-1,3-diene L S 1512 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde M 0 1518.8 2-nonen-4-one M 0 1531.7 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde S 0 1543.9 dodecanal M 0 1551.6 4-ethyl-2-methyl-pyrrole S 0 1558.2 3-(methylthio)-propanenitrile S 0 1561.2 3-decen-2-one M 0 1613.1 bis(2-methyl-4,5-dihydro-3-furyl) disulfide M 0 1615.6 1,10-undecadiene M 0 1619.5 2-undecenal S 0 1668.9 2-phenylpropenal M 0 1692.3 (Z)-3-decen-1-ol, acetate M 0 1733.1 3-phenyl-furan S 0 1739.7 4-nitrophenyl 2-thiophenecarboxylic acid S 0 ester 1741.2 5-formyl-4-methylthiazole M 0 1749.7 pentanoic acid, 2,2,4-trimethyl-3-hydroxy-, M 0 isobutyl ester 1765.5 benzyl alcohol S 0 1774.2 pentanoic acid, 2,2,4-trimethyl-3-hydroxy-, S 0 isobutyl ester 1796.9 dodecanal M 0 1806.1 (1-ethyl-1-propenyl)-benzene S 0 1825.6 1-undecanol M S 1827.9 2-methyl-3-furanthiol M 0 1828.3 2-methyl-3-(methylthio) furan M 0 1836.1 4-chloro-2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol S 0 1844.1 phenol S S 1845.3 [(methylsulfonyl)methyl]-benzene S 0 1850.3 (e)-2-tridecen-1-ol M 0 1859.9 1-heptyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-4-methyl- S 0 naphthalene 1863.2 2,4-decadienal S 0 1905.1 3,3′-dithiobis[2-methyl]-furan M 0 1906.9 3,5-di-tert-butylbenzoic acid S 0 1909.6 4-ethoxy-benzoic acid, ethyl ester S 0 1921.5 3-(phenylmethyl)-2,5-piperazinedione S 0 1944.5 9-octadecenal M 0 1959.7 3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol M S 1968.4 4-methyl-5-thiazoleethanol M S 2007.8 1,1′-(1,2-cyclobutanediyl)bis-cis-benzene S 0 2019.8 benzoic acid S S 2026.4 4-quinolinecarboxaldehyde S 0 2027.8 m-aminophenylacetylene M 0

Example 12 Ferrous Chlorin Catalyzes Production of Meat-Like Flavor Compounds

Fresh green spinach (10 lb) was added to 500 mL water and finely ground in a Vitamix blender to yield 2 L of green suspension. Acetone (8 L) was added with mixing and the material was allowed to extract for 1 hour. The material was filtered through Whatman filter paper and the acetone was removed on a rotary evaporator (Buchi). To the residual green suspension (500 mL) was added 2 mL of 10 M HCl, causing the suspension to turn brown. To this was added 1 g of FeCl₂.4H₂O in 10 mL H₂O. The solution was shaken then left at 4° C. for 16 hours. This suspension was extracted with diethyl ether (3×50 mL) to give a bright green organic phase, the combined organics were washed with saturated sodium chloride solution, dried over sodium sulfate, filtered and evaporated to leave a black paste (1.1 g). The pellet was dissolved in chloroform for fractionation.

Chlorophyll and Ferrous chlorin crude fractions were stored at −20° C. Crude extracts were fractionated by reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). HPLC conditions are outlined in Table 15. Both chlorophyll and ferrous chlorophyll were eluted from the column with a peak retention time of 7.6 minutes. Eluted material was collected from 7.3-8.0 minutes. Collected fractions were pooled and stored on ice. Collected fractions were re-chromatographed and showed a single peak with retention time 7.6 minutes. The desired fractions were pooled, then 10% sunflower oil was added, methanol was removed on a rotary evaporator (Buchi).

TABLE 15 HPLC conditions for purification of chlorophyll and ferrous chlorin from crude extract. Sample: Chlorophyll or Fe-chlorin (~2 mg/mL in CHCl₃) System: Agilent 1100 with Chemstation Column: Zorbax Bonus-RP (4.6 × 250 mm, 5 uM) Mobile phase: acetonitrile, methanol, ethyl acetate (60:20:20) isocratic flow Temperature: 30° C. Flow Rate: 1.0 mL per minute Injection volume: 0.05 mL Preparation of Flavor Reaction Containing Ferrous Chlorin or Leghemoglobin

A solution of ferrous chlorophyll was mixed with the Magic Mix (Table 13) to a final concentration of 0.35% ferrous chlorin, 1% glycerol, 0.005% tween-20, 5% sunflower oil, 100 mM NaCl, 20 mM phosphate at pH 6. Leghemoglobin (0.35%) at pH 6 in phosphate buffer (20 mM), 100 mM NaCl, was mixed with the Magic Mix (Table 13), 1% glycerol, and 0.005% tween-20. The flavor reaction mixtures were heated to 150° C. for 3 minutes; this reaction created flavor compounds known to be present in meat, created by hemoglobin and also created by ferrous chlorin; see Table 16.

The characteristic flavor and fragrance components were mostly produced during the cooking process when the flavor precursor molecules reacted with the heme-protein or the ferrous chlorophyll. Samples were evaluated by GCMS to identify the flavor compounds generated after heating. Volatile chemicals were isolated from the headspace around the flavor reactions. The profile of the volatile chemicals in the headspace around the flavor reaction mixtures that were similar between heme-protein and ferrous chlorin are shown in Table 16. Notabily, many of the compounds created by the ferrous chlorin are important in the flavor of meat.

TABLE 16 Flavor Compounds created by both Ferrous Chlorin and LegH with Magic Mix. 1-heptanol acetone 1-hexanol acetonitrile 1-octanol benzaldehyde 1-octen-3-ol butanal 1-octen-3-one 2-methyl-butanal 1-pentanol dimethyl trisulfide 2-acetylthiazole ethyl acetate 2-butenal furan 3-methyl-2-butenal, 2-ethyl-furan (Z)-2-decenal 2-hexyl furan 6-methyl-2-heptanone 2-pentyl-furan (E)-2-heptenal furfural (E)-2-hexenal heptanal 2-methyl-3-furanthiol aminophenylacetylene (E)-2-nonenal methacrolein (E)-2-octenal methional 2-pentanone octanal 1-hydroxy-2-propanone octane 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde oxalic acid, diallyl ester 2-undecenal 2,3-butanedione 3-methyl-3-buten-2-one 2-methyl-propanal 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde pyrazine (E)-4-octene, 2,3-dimethyl-pyrazine methyl-pyrazine 2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine thiazole

Example 13 Flavor Creation by Immobilized Hemin

Preparation of Hemin Linked CM Sepharose.

200 mg of bovine hemin (Sigma Aldrich) was loaded into a scintillation vial. A small magnetic stir bar, 800 μL acetonitrile, 64 μL 4-methylmorpholine, and 71 mg of N-hydroxysuccinimide were added in that order. The vial was placed in an ice bath and chilled then 118 mg of N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethyl-carbodiimide hydrochloride was added with stirring, followed by 845 μL of Jeffamine ED900. This was stirred while allowing the black mixture to warm to ambient temperature. Chloroform (10 mL) was added to the mixture followed by water (4 mL). A flashlight was used to distinguish between organic and aqueous layers since both were black and the organic layer was pipetted off and concentrated to a dark black oil. The oil was dissolved in a 4:1 mixture of acetonitrile and ethanol to make an approximately 10% strength solution that was inky black in color.

2 mL of water swelled and equilibrated CM Sepharose was equilibrated in a BioRad minicolumn with 3 volumes of acetonitrile. The resin was resuspended in 1 mL acetonitrile and pipetted into a scintillation vial. This was followed with 44 microliters 4-methylmorpholine, 23 mg N-hydroxysuccinimide, and 39 mg of solid N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethyl-carbodiimide hydrochloride. The mixture was vortexed vigorously and then shaken for three hours. To this white solid was added 570 microliters of inky black 20% strength hemin coupled diamine. The black solid was vortexed and shaken for an hour. The slurry strongly resembled Turkish coffee. The mixture was poured into a BioRad minicolumn and filtered, washed with acetonitrile until what came out no longer resembled espresso, then switched to deionized water, and finally 20 mM pH 9 sodium carbonate buffer. The black solid was washed until the effluent ran clear and then resuspended in 2 mL of buffer for storage until use.

Flavor Reaction

The flavor reaction was created with heme protein (equine myoglobin-Sigma) at 0.35% in a phosphate buffer (20 mM) at pH 6.0 with 100 mM NaCl, this was mixed with Magic Mix (Table 13). Another flavor reaction was created with Immobilized Hemin at 0.35% in a phosphate buffer (20 mM) at pH 6.0 with 100 mM NaCl, this was mixed with Magic Mix (Table 13). The flavor reaction mixtures were heated to 150° C. for 3 minutes; this reaction created flavor compounds known to be present in meat.

The characteristic flavor and fragrance components were mostly produced during the cooking process when the flavor precursor molecules reacted with the Heme-protein or the immobilized Hemin. Samples were evaluated by GCMS to identify the flavor compounds generated after heating. Volatile chemicals were isolated from the headspace around the flavor reactions. As can be seen in Table 17, immobilized hemin catalyzed production of compounds similar to those whose production was catalyzed by myoglobin free in solution. Notably, the profiles of flavor compounds, measured by GCMS, produced by cooking mixtures containing the immobilized hemin and the heme-protein, respectively, were very similar.

TABLE 17 Flavor compounds produced by cooking mixtures containing either myoglobin free in solution or hemin coupled to a solid support Flavor compound myoglobin hemin-linker-resin 2-methyl-5-(methylthio)-thiophene Low dihydro-5-propyl-2(3H)-furanone Low octane Low pyrrole Low Low methanethiol Low Low 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde Low Low methyl-pyrazine Low Low 1-hydroxy-2-propanone Low Low propanal Low Low thiophene Low medium pyridine Low Low 2-methyl-furan Low medium oxalic acid, butyl propyl ester Low Low pyrazine medium Low oxalic acid, diallyl ester medium medium 2-butenal medium large furfural medium medium nonanal medium medium 2-ethyl-furan medium Low ethanol medium very large tert-butanol medium 3,3′-dithiobis[2-methyl]-furan medium medium m-aminophenylacetylene medium medium 2,5-dihydro-3,4-dimethyl-furan medium medium 2-acetylthiazole medium medium cyclohexane medium ethyl tert-butyl ether medium carbon disulfide medium medium thiazole medium medium acetonitrile medium large 2-pentyl-furan medium Low 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde medium medium 2-methyl-butanal medium medium thiazole medium large 2-methyl-3-furanthiol larege large 2-propenal large large 3-methyl-2-butenal large medium 2-methyl-3-(methylthio) furan large large ethyl acetate large medium methacrolein large medium methyl-thiirane large large methional large large methyl alcohol large medium 2-butanone large Low 2,3-butanedione large medium acetone large large furan large medium benzaldehyde large medium methyl thiolacetate large medium acetaldehyde very large very large 2-methyl-propanal very large very large dimethyl trisulfide very large very large 3-methyl-butanal very large very large propyl-cyclopropane medium (E)-2-octenal medium 2-n-propylaziridine medium thiirane medium ethyl formate medium methyl vinyl ketone medium 2-propenoic acid, ethyl ester medium 1-nonanol large 1-octene large 1-heptanol large 1-dodecene large phorone very large

Example 14 The Combination of Precursors with Heme Protein Drives Flavor Reactions

Three samples were compared: precursor mix alone, 1% heme protein alone, and precursor mix with 1% heme. The precursor mix was made of glucose (20 mM), ribose (20 mM), cysteine (10 mM), thiamine (1 mM), and glutamic acid (1 mM). Reactions were all at pH 6.0, prepared and heated to 150° C. for 3 minutes. These three samples were run in duplicate. These samples were evaluated by GCMS for the flavor compounds generated. Characteristic flavor and fragrance components were mostly produced during the cooking process where precursors could react with the heme-protein. These samples were evaluated by GCMS for the flavor compounds generated and evaluated for the sensory experience. Volatile chemicals were isolated from the head space around the flavor reaction. The flavor compounds created in each sample is indicated in Table 18. As shown most of the flavor molecules were created on when the precursors are combined with the heme protein.

TABLE 18 Flavor molecules created by the combination of LegH and precursor mix. Precursor Precursor Compound mix LegH mix + Leg H carbon disulfide medium medium high isopropyl alcohol medium medium low 2-methyl-furan low low butanal low medium thiophene low low 2,3-butanedione low low high furan low medium 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptene high high acetone high high dimethyl trisulfide medium medium 2-methyl-heptane medium medium 2-pentanone medium pentanal medium medium 2-pentyl-furan medium medium 2-methyl-propanal low high 2-acetatyl-1-propene low low 2-methyl-butanal low medium 1,3-dimethyl-benzene low low octane low low benzene low low benzaldehyde very high 2-butanone very high furfural very high thiazole high nonanal high thiazole high 2-acetylthiazole medium 3-methyl-butanal medium (Z)-2-heptenal medium heptanal medium methyl-thiirane medium 3-ethyl-pentane medium phenylacetaldehyde medium 2-hexyl-furan medium 2-nonanone medium propanal medium pyrazine medium (Z)-2-heptenal medium 2-methyl-1-heptene medium 2-ethyl-furan medium octanal medium (E)-4-octene low (E)-2-octenal low 2-methyl-thiazole low 2-propenal low 1-octen-3-one low 1-octene low 2-octanone low dimethyl sulfide low 3-pentyl-furan low 2-n-octylfuran low 2-pentyl-thiophene low

OTHER EMBODIMENTS

It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A food product, comprising: a) a heme, wherein the heme is present in an amount equivalent to the amount of heme present in the food product when the food product contains a heme-containing protein in an amount of 0.01% to 5% by weight; b) a compound selected from glucose, ribose, fructose, lactose, xylose, arabinose, glucose-6-phosphate, maltose, and galactose, and mixtures of two or more thereof; c) at least 1.5 mM of a compound selected from cysteine, cystine, thiamine, methionine, and mixtures of two or more thereof; and d) one or more plant proteins, wherein the food product contains no animal product; and wherein cooking the food product results in the production of at least two volatile compounds selected from the group consisting of (1-ethyl-1-propenyl)-benzene, (E)-2-decenal, (E)-2-heptenal, (E)-2-hexenal, (E)-2-nonenal, (E)-2-octen-1-ol, (E)-2-octenal, (E)-2-tridecen-1-ol, (E)-3-penten-2-one, (E)-4-octene, (E)-5-decene, (E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one, (Z)-2-decenal, (Z)-2-heptenal, (Z)-3-decen-1-ol, acetate, [(methyl sulfonyl)methyl]-benzene, 1-(ethylthio)-2-(methylthio)-buta-1,3-diene, 1-(methylthio)-propane, 1,1′-(1,2-cyclobutanediyl)bis-cis-benzene, 1,10-undecadiene, 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene, 1,3-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-benzene, 1,3-diisopropoxy-1,3-dimethyl-1,3-disilacyclobutane, 1,3-dimethyl-benzene, 1-decen-3-one, 1-heptanol, 1-heptyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-4-methyl-naphthalene, 1-hexanol, 1-hydroxy-2-propanone, 1-nonanol, 1-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, 1-octen-3-one, 1-octene, 1-pentanol, 1-penten-3-one, 1-undecanol, 2,2,4,6,6-pentamethyl-heptane, 2,3,4-trimethyl-pentane, 2,3-butanedione, 2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-furan, 2,3-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2,4-decadienal, 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptene, 2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2-acetatyl-1-propene, 2-acetyl-propen-2-ol, 2-acetylthiazole, 2-butanone, 2-butenal, 2-butyl-1-decene, 2-decanone, 2-decenal, 2-ethyl-5-methyl-pyrazine, 2-ethylacrolein, 2-ethyl-furan, 2-heptanone, 2-heptenal, 2-hexyl furan, 2-methyl-1(H)-pyrrole, 2-methyl-1-heptene, 2-methyl-1-penten-1-one, 2-methyl-3-(methylthio) furan, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, 2-methyl-5-(methylthio)-furan, 2-methyl-butanal, 2-methyl-cyclopentanone, 2-methyl-furan, 2-methyl-heptane, 2-methyl-pentanal, 2-methyl-propanal, 2-methyl-thiazole, 2-n-octylfuran, 2-nonanone, 2-nonen-4-one, 2-octanone, 2-octenal, 2-pentanone, 2-pentyl-furan, 2-pentyl-thiophene, 2-phenylpropenal, 2-propenal, 2-propenoic acid, methyl ester, 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 2-tridecen-1-ol, 2-undecanone, 2-undecenal, 3-(methylthio)-propanenitrile, 3-(phenylmethyl)-2,5-piperazinedione, 3,3′-dithiobis-2-methyl-furan, 3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol, 3,5-di-tert-butylbenzoic acid, 3-decen-2-one, 3-ethylcyclopentanone, 3-ethyl-pentane, 3-methyl-2-butenal, 3-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-methyl-3-buten-2-one, 3-methyl-butanal, 3-methyl-furan, 3-methylheptyl acetate, 3-methyl-pentanal, 3-pentyl-furan, 3-phenyl-furan, 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-thiophenemethanol, 4,7-dimethyl-undecane, 4-chloro-2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol, 4-ethoxy-benzoic acid, ethyl ester, 4-ethyl-2-methyl-pyrrole, 4-ethyl-benzaldehyde, 4-methyl-2-heptanone, 4-methyl-5-thiazoleethanol, 4-methylthiazole, 4-nitrophenyl 2-thiophenecarboxylic acid ester, 4-penten-2-one, 4-quinolinecarboxaldehyde, 5-(2-chloroethyl)-4-methylthiazole, 5-ethenyl-4-methyl-thiazole, 5-ethyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone, 5-formyl-4-methylthiazole, 5-methyl-1-undecene, 6-methyl-2-heptanone, 7-methyl-(E)-5-undecene, 9-octadecenal, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetone, acetonitrile, acetophenone, acetyl valeryl, aminophenylacetylene, benzaldehyde, benzene, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, bis(2-methyl-4,5-dihydro-3-furyl) disulfide, butanal, butanone, butyrolactone, carbon disulfide, decanal, dihydro-3-(2H)-thiophenone, dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone, dimethyl selenone, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, dodecanal, ethanol, ethyl acetate, formic acid, heptyl ester, furan, furfural, heptanal, hexanoic acid, isopropyl alcohol, isothiazole, isothiocyanato-methane, m-aminophenylacetylene, methacrolein, methanethiol, methional, methyl (methylthio)methyl disulfide, methyl isopropyl disulphide, methyl thiolacetate, methyl vinyl ketone, methyl-pyrazine, methyl-thiirane, nonanal, octanal, octane, oxalic acid, diallyl ester, oxalic acid, isobutyl pentyl ester, p-Cresol, p-dithiane-2,5-diol, pentanal, pentanoic acid, 2,2,4-trimethyl-3-hydroxy-, isobutyl ester, phenol, phenylacetaldehyde, propanal, propyl-cyclopropane, p-xylene, pyrazine, pyrrole, styrene, thiazole, thiocyanic acid, methyl ester, thiophene, toluene, trans-2-(2-pentenyl)furan, trichloromethane, and tridecane.
 2. The food product of claim 1, wherein the heme is bound to a protein.
 3. The food product of claim 1, wherein the heme is bound to a solid support.
 4. The food product of claim 1, further comprising one or more of inosine, inosine monophosphate (IMP), guanosine, guanosine monophosphate (GMP), and adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
 5. The food product of claim 1, further comprising one or more of beta-carotene, alpha-tocopherol, caffeic acid, propyl gallate, and epigallocatechin gallate.
 6. The food product of claim 1, further comprising one or more of a vegetable oil, an algal oil, sunflower oil, corn oil, soybean oil, palm fruit oil, palm kernel oil, safflower oil, flaxseed oil, rice bran oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, canola oil, flaxseed oil, coconut oil, and mango oil.
 7. The food product of claim 1, comprising a textured vegetable protein.
 8. The food product of claim 1, wherein the beef-like food product has a pink to red color before cooking to indicate a raw or uncooked state.
 9. The food product of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the food product, upon cooking, transitions in color from a pink to red color in a raw or uncooked state to a lighter pink to brown color in a partially cooked to fully cooked state.
 10. The food product of claim 1, comprising about 5.6 to about 20 mM of the compound selected from glucose, ribose, fructose, lactose, xylose, arabinose, glucose-6-phosphate, maltose, and galactose, and mixtures of two or more thereof.
 11. The food product of claim 1, comprising about 0.8 mM to about 10 mM cysteine.
 12. The food product of claim 1, comprising about 0.1 mM to about 2 mM thiamine.
 13. The food product of claim 1, wherein the at least two volatile compounds are selected from the group consisting of 2-methyl-furan, 2-pentyl-furan, 3,3′-dithiobis-2-methyl-furan, 2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, dihydro-3-(2H)-thiophenone, 5-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 2-methyl-thiazole, dimethyl sulfide, decanal, 5-ethyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone, dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone, 2-octanone, 3,5-octadien-2-one, p-Cresol, and hexanoic acid.
 14. The food product of claim 1, wherein cooking comprises heating the beef-like food product at 150° C. for about 3 to about 5 minutes.
 15. The food product of claim 1, further comprising one or more of acetic acid, lactic acid, glycolic acid, citric acid, succinic acid, tartaric acid, caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, alpha linolenic acid, gamma linolenic acid, arachidic acid, arachidonic acid, behenic acid, and erucic acid.
 16. The food product of claim 1, wherein cooking the food product results in the production of at least five volatile compounds selected from the group consisting of (1-ethyl-1-propenyl)-benzene, (E)-2-decenal, (E)-2-heptenal, (E)-2-hexenal, (E)-2-nonenal, (E)-2-octen-1-ol, (E)-2-octenal, (E)-2-tridecen-1-ol, (E)-3-penten-2-one, (E)-4-octene, (E)-5-decene, (E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one, (Z)-2-decenal, (Z)-2-heptenal, (Z)-3-decen-1-ol, acetate, [(methyl sulfonyl)methyl]-benzene, 1-(ethylthio)-2-(methylthio)-buta-1,3-diene, 1-(methylthio)-propane, 1,1′-(1,2-cyclobutanediyl)bis-cis-benzene, 1,10-undecadiene, 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene, 1,3-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-benzene, 1,3-diisopropoxy-1,3-dimethyl-1,3-disilacyclobutane, 1,3-dimethyl-benzene, 1-decen-3-one, 1-heptanol, 1-heptyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-4-methyl-naphthalene, 1-hexanol, 1-hydroxy-2-propanone, 1-nonanol, 1-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, 1-octen-3-one, 1-octene, 1-pentanol, 1-penten-3-one, 1-undecanol, 2,2,4,6,6-pentamethyl-heptane, 2,3,4-trimethyl-pentane, 2,3-butanedione, 2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-furan, 2,3-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2,4-decadienal, 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptene, 2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2-acetatyl-1-propene, 2-acetyl-propen-2-ol, 2-acetylthiazole, 2-butanone, 2-butenal, 2-butyl-1-decene, 2-decanone, 2-decenal, 2-ethyl-5-methyl-pyrazine, 2-ethylacrolein, 2-ethyl-furan, 2-heptanone, 2-heptenal, 2-hexyl furan, 2-methyl-1(H)-pyrrole, 2-methyl-1-heptene, 2-methyl-1-penten-1-one, 2-methyl-3-(methylthio) furan, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, 2-methyl-5-(methylthio)-furan, 2-methyl-butanal, 2-methyl-cyclopentanone, 2-methyl-furan, 2-methyl-heptane, 2-methyl-pentanal, 2-methyl-propanal, 2-methyl-thiazole, 2n-octylfuran, 2-nonanone, 2-nonen-4-one, 2-octanone, 2-octenal, 2-pentanone, 2-pentyl-furan, 2-pentyl-thiophene, 2-phenylpropenal, 2-propenal, 2-propenoic acid, methyl ester, 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 2-tridecen-1-ol, 2-undecanone, 2-undecenal, 3-(methylthio)-propanenitrile, 3-(phenylmethyl)-2,5-piperazinedione, 3,3′-dithiobis-2-methyl-furan, 3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol, 3,5-di-tert-butylbenzoic acid, 3-decen-2-one, 3-ethylcyclopentanone, 3-ethyl-pentane, 3-methyl-2-butenal, 3-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-methyl-3-buten-2-one, 3-methyl-butanal, 3-methyl-furan, 3-methylheptyl acetate, 3-methyl-pentanal, 3-pentyl-furan, 3-phenyl-furan, 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-thiophenemethanol, 4,7-dimethyl-undecane, 4-chloro-2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol, 4-ethoxy-benzoic acid, ethyl ester, 4-ethyl-2-methyl-pyrrole, 4-ethyl-benzaldehyde, 4-methyl-2-heptanone, 4-methyl-5-thiazoleethanol, 4-methylthiazole, 4-nitrophenyl 2-thiophenecarboxylic acid ester, 4-penten-2-one, 4-quinolinecarboxaldehyde, 5-(2-chloroethyl)-4-methylthiazole, 5-ethenyl-4-methyl-thiazole, 5-ethyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone, 5-formyl-4-methylthiazole, 5-methyl-1-undecene, 6-methyl-2-heptanone, 7-methyl-(E)-5-undecene, 9-octadecenal, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetone, acetonitrile, acetophenone, acetyl valeryl, aminophenylacetylene, benzaldehyde, benzene, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, bis(2-methyl-4,5-dihydro-3-furyl) disulfide, butanal, butanone, butyrolactone, carbon disulfide, decanal, dihydro-3-(2H)-thiophenone, dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone, dimethyl selenone, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, dodecanal, ethanol, ethyl acetate, formic acid, heptyl ester, furan, furfural, heptanal, hexanoic acid, isopropyl alcohol, isothiazole, isothiocyanato-methane, m-aminophenylacetylene, methacrolein, methanethiol, methional, methyl (methylthio)methyl disulfide, methyl isopropyl disulphide, methyl thiolacetate, methyl vinyl ketone, methyl-pyrazine, methyl-thiirane, nonanal, octanal, octane, oxalic acid, diallyl ester, oxalic acid, isobutyl pentyl ester, p-Cresol, p-dithiane-2,5-diol, pentanal, pentanoic acid, 2,2,4-trimethyl-3-hydroxy-, isobutyl ester, phenol, phenylacetaldehyde, propanal, propyl-cyclopropane, p-xylene, pyrazine, pyrrole, styrene, thiazole, thiocyanic acid, methyl ester, thiophene, toluene, trans-2-(2-pentenyl)furan, trichloromethane, and tridecane.
 17. The food product of claim 1, wherein cooking the food product results in the production of at least ten volatile compounds selected from the group consisting of (1-ethyl-1-propenyl)-benzene, (E)-2-decenal, (E)-2-heptenal, (E)-2-hexenal, (E)-2-nonenal, (E)-2-octen-1-ol, (E)-2-octenal, (E)-2-tridecen-1-ol, (E)-3-penten-2-one, (E)-4-octene, (E)-5-decene, (E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one, (Z)-2-decenal, (Z)-2-heptenal, (Z)-3-decen-1-ol, acetate, [(methyl sulfonyl)methyl]-benzene, 1-(ethylthio)-2-(methylthio)-buta-1,3-diene, 1-(methylthio)-propane, 1,1′-(1,2-cyclobutanediyl)bis-cis-benzene, 1,10-undecadiene, 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene, 1,3-bis(1,1 -dimethylethyl)-benzene, 1,3-diisopropoxy-1,3-dimethyl-1,3-disilacyclobutane, 1,3-dimethyl-b enzene, 1-decen-3-one, 1-heptanol, 1-heptyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-4-methyl-naphthalene, 1-hexanol, 1-hydroxy-2-propanone, 1-nonanol, 1-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, 1-octen-3-one, 1-octene, 1-pentanol, 1-penten-3-one, 1-undecanol, 2,2,4,6,6-pentamethyl-heptane, 2,3,4-trimethyl-pentane, 2,3-butanedione, 2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-furan, 2,3-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2,4-decadienal, 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptene, 2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2-acetatyl-1-propene, 2-acetyl-propen-2-ol, 2-acetylthiazole, 2-butanone, 2-butenal, 2-butyl-1-decene, 2-decanone, 2-decenal, 2-ethyl-5-methyl-pyrazine, 2-ethylacrolein, 2-ethyl-furan, 2-heptanone, 2-heptenal, 2-hexyl furan, 2-methyl-1(H)-pyrrole, 2-methyl-1-heptene, 2-methyl-1-penten-1-one, 2-methyl-3-(methylthio) furan, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, 2-methyl-5-(methylthio)-furan, 2-methyl-butanal, 2-methyl-cyclopentanone, 2-methyl-furan, 2-methyl-heptane, 2-methyl-pentanal, 2-methyl-propanal, 2-methyl-thiazole, 2-n-octylfuran, 2-nonanone, 2-nonen-4-one, 2-octanone, 2-octenal, 2-pentanone, 2-pentyl-furan, 2-pentyl-thiophene, 2-phenylpropenal, 2-propenal, 2-propenoic acid, methyl ester, 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 2-tridecen-1-ol, 2-undecanone, 2-undecenal, 3-(methylthio)-propanenitrile, 3-(phenylmethyl)-2,5-piperazinedione, 3,3′-dithiobis-2-methyl-furan, 3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol, 3,5-di-tert-butylbenzoic acid, 3-decen-2-one, 3-ethylcyclopentanone, 3-ethyl-pentane, 3-methyl-2-butenal, 3-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-methyl-3-buten-2-one, 3-methyl-butanal, 3-methyl-furan, 3-methylheptyl acetate, 3-methyl-pentanal, 3-pentyl-furan, 3-phenyl-furan, 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-thiophenemethanol, 4,7-dimethyl-undecane, 4-chloro-2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol, 4-ethoxy-benzoic acid, ethyl ester, 4-ethyl-2-methyl-pyrrole, 4-ethyl-benzaldehyde, 4-methyl-2-heptanone, 4-methyl-5-thiazoleethanol, 4-methylthiazole, 4-nitrophenyl 2-thiophenecarboxylic acid ester, 4-penten-2-one, 4-quinolinecarboxaldehyde, 5-(2-chloroethyl)-4-methylthiazole, 5-ethenyl-4-methyl-thiazole, 5-ethyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone, 5-formyl-4-methylthiazole, 5-methyl-1-undecene, 6-methyl-2-heptanone, 7-methyl-(E)-5-undecene, 9-octadecenal, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetone, acetonitrile, acetophenone, acetyl valeryl, aminophenylacetylene, benzaldehyde, benzene, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, bis(2-methyl-4,5-dihydro-3-furyl) disulfide, butanal, butanone, butyrolactone, carbon disulfide, decanal, dihydro-3-(2H)-thiophenone, dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone, dimethyl selenone, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, dodecanal, ethanol, ethyl acetate, formic acid, heptyl ester, furan, furfural, heptanal, hexanoic acid, isopropyl alcohol, isothiazole, isothiocyanato-methane, m-aminophenylacetylene, methacrolein, methanethiol, methional, methyl (methylthio)methyl disulfide, methyl isopropyl disulphide, methyl thiolacetate, methyl vinyl ketone, methyl-pyrazine, methyl-thiirane, nonanal, octanal, octane, oxalic acid, diallyl ester, oxalic acid, isobutyl pentyl ester, p-Cresol, p-dithiane-2,5-diol, pentanal, pentanoic acid, 2,2,4-trimethyl-3-hydroxy-, isobutyl ester, phenol, phenylacetaldehyde, propanal, propyl-cyclopropane, p-xylene, pyrazine, pyrrole, styrene, thiazole, thiocyanic acid, methyl ester, thiophene, toluene, trans-2-(2-pentenyl)furan, trichloromethane, and tridecane.
 18. The food product of claim 1, wherein cooking the food product results in the production of at least twenty volatile compounds selected from the group consisting of (1-ethyl-1-propenyl)-benzene, (E)-2-decenal, (E)-2-heptenal, (E)-2-hexenal, (E)-2-nonenal, (E)-2-octen-1-ol, (E)-2-octenal, (E)-2-tridecen-1-ol, (E)-3-penten-2-one, (E)-4-octene, (E)-5-decene, (E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one, (Z)-2-decenal, (Z)-2-heptenal, (Z)-3-decen-1-ol, acetate, [(methyl sulfonyl)methyl]-benzene, 1-(ethylthio)-2-(methylthio)-buta-1,3-diene, 1-(methylthio)-propane, 1,1′-(1,2-cyclobutanediyl)bis-cis-benzene, 1,10-undecadiene, 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene, 1,3-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-benzene, 1,3-diisopropoxy-1,3-dimethyl-1,3-disilacyclobutane, 1,3-dimethyl-benzene, 1-decen-3-one, 1-heptanol, 1-heptyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-4-methyl-naphthalene, 1-hexanol, 1-hydroxy-2-propanone, 1-nonanol, 1-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, 1-octen-3-one, 1-octene, 1-pentanol, 1-penten-3-one, 1-undecanol, 2,2,4,6,6-pentamethyl-heptane, 2,3,4-trimethyl-pentane, 2,3-butanedione, 2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-furan, 2,3-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2,4-decadienal, 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptene, 2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2-acetatyl-1-propene, 2-acetyl-propen-2-ol, 2-acetylthiazole, 2-butanone, 2-butenal, 2-butyl-1-decene, 2-decanone, 2-decenal, 2-ethyl-5-methyl-pyrazine, 2-ethylacrolein, 2-ethyl-furan, 2-heptanone, 2-heptenal, 2-hexyl furan, 2-methyl-1(H)-pyrrole, 2-methyl-1-heptene, 2-methyl-1-penten-1-one, 2-methyl-3-(methylthio) furan, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, 2-methyl-5-(methylthio)-furan, 2-methyl-butanal, 2-methyl-cyclopentanone, 2-methyl-furan, 2-methyl-heptane, 2-methyl-pentanal, 2-methyl-propanal, 2-methyl-thiazole, 2-n-octylfuran, 2-nonanone, 2-nonen-4-one, 2-octanone, 2-octenal, 2-pentanone, 2-pentyl-furan, 2-pentyl-thiophene, 2-phenylpropenal, 2-propenal, 2-propenoic acid, methyl ester, 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 2-tridecen-1-ol, 2-undecanone, 2-undecenal, 3-(methylthio)-propanenitrile, 3-(phenylmethyl)-2,5-piperazinedione, 3,3′-dithiobis-2-methyl-furan, 3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol, 3,5-di-tert-butylbenzoic acid, 3-decen-2-one, 3-ethylcyclopentanone, 3-ethyl-pentane, 3-methyl-2-butenal, 3-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-methyl-3-buten-2-one, 3-methyl-butanal, 3-methyl-furan, 3-methylheptyl acetate, 3-methyl-pentanal, 3-pentyl-furan, 3-phenyl-furan, 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-thiophenemethanol, 4,7-dimethyl-undecane, 4-chloro-2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol, 4-ethoxy-benzoic acid, ethyl ester, 4-ethyl-2-methyl-pyrrole, 4-ethyl-benzaldehyde, 4-methyl-2-heptanone, 4-methyl-5-thiazoleethanol, 4-methylthiazole, 4-nitrophenyl 2-thiophenecarboxylic acid ester, 4-penten-2-one, 4-quinolinecarboxaldehyde, 5-(2-chloroethyl)-4-methylthiazole, 5-ethenyl-4-methyl-thiazole, 5-ethyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone, 5-formyl-4-methylthiazole, 5-methyl-1-undecene, 6-methyl-2-heptanone, 7-methyl-(E)-5-undecene, 9-octadecenal, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetone, acetonitrile, acetophenone, acetyl valeryl, aminophenylacetylene, benzaldehyde, benzene, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, bis(2-methyl-4,5-dihydro-3-furyl) disulfide, butanal, butanone, butyrolactone, carbon disulfide, decanal, dihydro-3-(2H)-thiophenone, dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone, dimethyl selenone, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, dodecanal, ethanol, ethyl acetate, formic acid, heptyl ester, furan, furfural, heptanal, hexanoic acid, isopropyl alcohol, isothiazole, isothiocyanato-methane, m-aminophenylacetylene, methacrolein, methanethiol, methional, methyl (methylthio)methyl disulfide, methyl isopropyl disulphide, methyl thiolacetate, methyl vinyl ketone, methyl-pyrazine, methyl-thiirane, nonanal, octanal, octane, oxalic acid, diallyl ester, oxalic acid, isobutyl pentyl ester, p-Cresol, p-dithiane-2,5-diol, pentanal, pentanoic acid, 2,2,4-trimethyl-3-hydroxy-, isobutyl ester, phenol, phenylacetaldehyde, propanal, propyl-cyclopropane, p-xylene, pyrazine, pyrrole, styrene, thiazole, thiocyanic acid, methyl ester, thiophene, toluene, trans-2-(2-pentenyl)furan, trichloromethane, and tridecane.
 19. The food product of claim 1, wherein the at least two volatile compounds are 2-methyl-furan and 3,3′-dithiobis-2-methyl-furan.
 20. The food product of claim 1, further comprising one or more of alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, 5-hydroxytryptophan, and valine.
 21. The food product of claim 1, further comprising one or more of a soy protein hydrolysate, a yeast extract, a yeast protein hydrolysate, and an algal protein hydrolysate.
 22. A meat substitute, comprising: a) a heme, wherein the heme is present in an amount equivalent to the amount of heme present in the food product when the food product contains a heme-containing protein in an amount of 0.01% to 5% by weight; b) a compound selected from glucose, ribose, fructose, lactose, xylose, arabinose, glucose-6-phosphate, maltose, and galactose, and mixtures of two or more thereof; c) at least 1.5 mM of a compound selected from cysteine, cystine, thiamine, methionine, and mixtures of two or more thereof; and d) one or more plant proteins, wherein the meat substitute is in a form selected from the group consisting of a hot dog, a burger, ground meat, a sausage, a steak, a filet, a roast, a meatball, meatloaf, or bacon; and wherein the meat substitute contains no animal products; and wherein cooking the meat substitute in the production of at least two volatile compounds which have a meat-associated aroma.
 23. The meat substitute of claim 22, wherein the at least two volatile compounds which have a meat-associated aroma comprise at least two compounds which have a beef-associated aroma.
 24. The meat substitute of claim 22, wherein the heme is bound to a protein.
 25. The meat substitute of claim 22, wherein the heme is bound to a solid support.
 26. The meat substitute of claim 22, comprising a textured vegetable protein.
 27. The meat substitute of claim 22, comprising about 5.6 to about 20 mM of the compound selected from glucose, ribose, fructose, lactose, xylose, arabinose, glucose-6-phosphate, maltose, and galactose, and mixtures of two or more thereof.
 28. The meat substitute of claim 22, comprising about 0.8 mM to about 10 mM cysteine.
 29. The meat substitute of claim 22, comprising about 0.1 mM to about 2 mM thiamine.
 30. The meat substitute of claim 22, wherein the at least two volatile compounds are selected from the group consisting of 2-methyl-furan, 2-pentyl-furan, 3,3′-dithiobis-2-methyl-furan, 2,5-dimethyl-pyrazine, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, dihydro-3-(2H)-thiophenone, 5-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 3-methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 2-methyl-thiazole, dimethyl sulfide, decanal, 5-ethyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone, dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone, 2-octanone, 3,5-octadien-2-one, p-Cresol, and hexanoic acid.
 31. The meat substitute of claim 22, wherein cooking comprises heating the meat substitute at 150° C. for about 3 to about 5 minutes.
 32. The meat substitute of claim 22, wherein cooking the meat substitute results in the production of at least five volatile compounds which have a meat-associated aroma.
 33. The meat substitute of claim 22, wherein cooking the meat substitute results in the production of at least ten volatile compounds which have a meat-associated aroma.
 34. The meat substitute of claim 22, wherein cooking the meat substitute results in the production of at least twenty volatile compounds which have a meat-associated aroma. 